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Diamond
A scattering of round-brilliant cut diamonds shows off the many reflecting facets.
General
Category Native Minerals
Chemical formula C
Identification
Molar mass 12.01 g·mol-1
Color Typically yellow, brown or gray to colorless. Less often blue, green, black, translucent white, pink, violet, orange, purple and red.
Crystal habit Octahedral
Crystal system Isometric-Hexoctahedral (Cubic)
Cleavage 111 (perfect in four directions)
Fracture Conchoidal (shell-like)
Mohs scale hardness 10
Luster Adamantine
Streak Colorless
Diaphaneity Transparent to subtransparent to translucent
Specific gravity 3.52±0.01
Density 3.5–3.53 g/cm3
Polish luster Adamantine
Optical properties Isotropic
Refractive index 2.418 (at 500 nm)
Birefringence None
Pleochroism None
Dispersion 0.044
Melting point Pressure dependent
References [1][2]
In mineralogy, diamond (from the ancient Greek αδάμας – adámas "unbreakable") is an allotrope of carbon, where the carbon atoms are arranged in a variation of the face-centered cubic crystal structure called a diamond lattice. Diamond is less stable than graphite, but the conversion rate from diamond to graphite is negligible at ambient conditions. Diamond is renowned as a material with superlative physical qualities, most of which originate from the strong covalent bonding between its atoms. In particular, diamond has the highest hardness and thermal conductivity of any bulk material. Those properties determine the major industrial application of diamond in cutting and polishing tools.
Diamond has remarkable optical characteristics. Because of its extremely rigid lattice, it can be contaminated by very few types of impurities, such as boron and nitrogen. Combined with wide transparency, this results in the clear, colorless appearance of most natural diamonds. Small amounts of defects or impurities (about one per million of lattice atoms) color diamond blue (boron), yellow (nitrogen), brown (lattice defects), green, purple, pink, orange or red. Diamond also has relatively high optical dispersion, that is ability to disperse light of different colors, which results in its characteristic luster. Excellent optical and mechanical properties, combined with efficient marketing, make diamond the most popular gemstone.
Most natural diamonds are formed at high-pressure high-temperature conditions existing at depths of 140 to 190 kilometers (87 to 120 mi) in the Earth mantle. Carbon-containing minerals provide the carbon source, and the growth occurs over periods from 1 billion to 3.3 billion years (25% to 75% of the age of the Earth). Diamonds are brought close to the Earth surface through deep volcanic eruptions by a magma, which cools into igneous rocks known as kimberlites and lamproites. Diamonds can also be produced synthetically in a high-pressure high-temperature process which approximately simulates the conditions in the Earth mantle. An alternative, and completely different growth technique is chemical vapor deposition (CVD). Several non-diamond materials, which include cubic zirconia and silicon carbide and are often called diamond simulants, resemble diamond in appearance and many properties. Special gemological techniques have been specially developed to distinguish natural and synthetic diamonds and diamond simulants.
Contents [hide]
1 History
2 Material properties
2.1 Hardness
2.2 Electrical conductivity
2.3 Color
2.4 Identification
3 Natural history
3.1 Formation in cratons
3.2 Formation in meteorite impact craters
3.3 Extraterrestrial formation
3.4 Surfacing
4 Production
4.1 Controversial sources
5 Commercial markets
5.1 Gemstones and their distribution
5.1.1 Marketing
5.1.2 Cutting
5.2 Industrial uses
6 Synthetics, simulants, and enhancements
6.1 Synthetics
6.2 Simulants
6.3 Enhancements
6.4 Identification
7 See also
8 References
9 Books
10 External links
[edit] History
See also: Diamond (gemstone)
The name diamond is derived from the ancient Greek αδάμας (adámas), "proper", "unalterable", "unbreakable, untamed", from ἀ- (a-), "un-" + δαμάω (damáō), "I overpower, I tame".[3] Diamonds are thought to have been first recognized and mined in India, where significant alluvial deposits of the stone could be found many centuries ago along the rivers Penner, Krishna and Godavari. Diamonds have been known in India for at least 3,000 years but most likely 6,000 years.[4]
Diamonds have been treasured as gemstones since their use as religious icons in ancient India. Their usage in engraving tools also dates to early human history.[5][6] The popularity of diamonds has risen since the 19th century because of increased supply, improved cutting and polishing techniques, growth in the world economy, and innovative and successful advertising campaigns.[7]
In 1772, Antoine Lavoisier used a lens to concentrate the rays of the sun on a diamond in an atmosphere of oxygen, and showed that the only product of the combustion was carbon dioxide, proving that diamond is composed of carbon. Later in 1797, Smithson Tennant repeated and expanded that experiment. By demonstrating that burning diamond and graphite (charcoal) releases the same amount of gas he established the chemical equivalence of these substances.[8]
The most familiar use of diamonds today is as gemstones used for adornment, a use which dates back into antiquity. The dispersion of white light into spectral colors is the primary gemological characteristic of gem diamonds. In the 20th century, experts in gemology have developed methods of grading diamonds and other gemstones based on the characteristics most important to their value as a gem. Four characteristics, known informally as the four Cs, are now commonly used as the basic descriptors of diamonds: these are carat, cut, color, and clarity.[9] A large, flawless diamond is known as a paragon.
[edit] Material properties
Main articles: Material properties of diamond and Crystallographic defects in diamond
Theoretically predicted phase diagram of carbon
Diamond and graphite are two allotropes of carbon: pure forms of the same element that differ in structure.A diamond is a transparent crystal of tetrahedrally bonded carbon atoms (sp3) that crystallizes into the diamond lattice which is a variation of the face centered cubic structure. Diamonds have been adapted for many uses because of the material's exceptional physical characteristics. Most notable are its extreme hardness and thermal conductivity (900–2,320 W·m−1·K−1),[10] as well as wide bandgap and high optical dispersion.[11] Above 1,700 °C (1,973 K / 3,583 °F) in vacuum or oxygen-free atmosphere, diamond converts to graphite; in air, transformation starts at ~700 °C.[12] Naturally occurring diamonds have a density ranging from 3.15–3.53 g/cm3, with pure diamond close to 3.52 g/cm3.[1] Despite the hardness of diamonds, the chemical bonds that hold the carbon atoms in diamonds together are weaker than those that hold together the other form of pure carbon, graphite. The difference is that in diamonds, the bonds form an inflexible three-dimensional lattice. In graphite, the atoms are tightly bonded into sheets, which can slide easily over one another.[13]
[edit] Hardness
Diamond is the hardest natural material known, where hardness is defined as resistance to scratching and is graded between 1 (softest) and 10 (hardest) using the Mohs scale of mineral hardness. Diamond has a hardness of 10 (hardest) on this scale.[14] Diamond's hardness has been known since antiquity, and is the source of its name.
Diamond hardness depends on its purity, crystalline perfection and orientation: hardness is higher for flawless, pure crystals oriented to the ⟨111⟩ direction (along the longest diagonal of the cubic diamond lattice).[15] Therefore, whereas it might be possible to scratch some diamonds with other materials, such as boron nitride, the hardest diamonds can only be scratched by other diamonds. In particular, nanocrystalline diamond aggregates were measured to be harder than any large single crystal diamond. Those aggregates are produced by high-pressure high-temperature treatment of graphite or fullerite (C60).[16]
The hardness of diamond contributes to its suitability as a gemstone. Because it can only be scratched by other diamonds, it maintains its polish extremely well. Unlike many other gems, it is well-suited to daily wear because of its resistance to scratching—perhaps contributing to its popularity as the preferred gem in engagement or wedding rings, which are often worn every day.
The hardest natural diamonds mostly originate from the Copeton and Bingara fields located in the New England area in New South Wales, Australia. These diamonds are generally small, perfect to semiperfect octahedra, and are used to polish other diamonds. Their hardness is associated with the crystal growth form, which is single-stage crystal growth. Most other diamonds show more evidence of multiple growth stages, which produce inclusions, flaws, and defect planes in the crystal lattice, all of which affect their hardness. It is possible to treat regular diamonds under a combination of high pressure and high temperature to produce diamonds that are harder than the diamonds used in hardness gauges.[17]
Somewhat related to hardness is another mechanical property toughness, which is a material's ability to resist breakage from forceful impact. The toughness of natural diamond has been measured as 2.0 MPa·m1/2,[18] and the critical stress intensity factor is 3.4 MN·m−3/2.[19] Those values are good compared to other gemstones, but poor compared to most engineering materials. As with any material, the macroscopic geometry of a diamond contributes to its resistance to breakage. Diamond has a cleavage plane and is therefore more fragile in some orientations than others. Diamond cutters use this attribute to cleave some stones, prior to faceting.[20]
[edit] Electrical conductivity
Other specialized applications also exist or are being developed, including use as semiconductors: some blue diamonds are natural semiconductors, in contrast to most diamonds, which are excellent electrical insulators.[21] The conductivity and blue color originate from boron impurity. Boron substitutes for carbon atoms in the diamond lattice, donating a hole into the valence band.[21]
Substantial conductivity is commonly observed in nominally undoped diamond grown by chemical vapor deposition. This conductivity is associated with hydrogen-related species adsorbed at the surface, and it can be removed by annealing or other surface treatments.[22][23]
[edit] Color
Main article: Diamond color
Brown diamonds at the National Museum of Natural History in Washington, D.CDiamond has a wide bandgap of 5.5 eV corresponding to the deep ultraviolet wavelength of 225 nanometers. This means pure diamond should transmit visible light and appear as a clear colorless crystal. Colors in diamond originate from lattice defects and impurities. The diamond crystal lattice is exceptionally strong and only atoms of nitrogen, boron and hydrogen can be introduced into diamond during the growth at significant concentrations (up to atomic percents). Transition metals Ni and Co, which are commonly used for growth of synthetic diamond by high-pressure high-temperature techniques, have been detected in diamond as individual atoms; the maximum concentration is 0.01% for Ni[24] and even much less for Co. Virtually any element can be introduced to diamond by ion implantation.[25]
Nitrogen is by far the most common impurity found in gem diamonds. Nitrogen is responsible for the yellow and brown color in diamonds. Boron is responsible for the gray blue colors.[11] Color in diamond has two additional sources: irradiation (usually by alpha particles), that causes the color in green diamonds; and physical deformation of the diamond crystal known as plastic deformation. Plastic deformation is the cause of color in some brown[26] and perhaps pink and red diamonds.[27] In order of rarity, colorless diamond, by far the most common, is followed by yellow and brown, by far the most common colors, then by blue, green, black, translucent white, pink, violet, orange, purple, and the rarest, red.[20] "Black", or Carbonado, diamonds are not truly black, but rather contain numerous dark inclusions that give the gems their dark appearance. Colored diamonds contain impurities or structural defects that cause the coloration, while pure or nearly pure diamonds are transparent and colorless. Most diamond impurities replace a carbon atom in the crystal lattice, known as a carbon flaw. The most common impurity, nitrogen, causes a slight to intense yellow coloration depending upon the type and concentration of nitrogen present.[20] The Gemological Institute of America (GIA) classifies low saturation yellow and brown diamonds as diamonds in the normal color range, and applies a grading scale from "D" (colorless) to "Z" (light yellow). Diamonds of a different color, such as blue, are called fancy colored diamonds, and fall under a different grading scale.[20]
In 2008, the Wittelsbach Diamond, a 35.56-carat (7.11 g) blue diamond once belonging to the King of Spain, fetched over US$24 million at a Christie's auction.[28] In May 2009, a 7.03-carat (1.41 g) blue diamond fetched the highest price per carat ever paid for a diamond when it was sold at auction for 10.5 million Swiss francs (6.97 million Euro or US$9.5 million at the time).[29] That record was however beaten the same year: a 5-carat vivid pink diamond was sold for $10.8 million in Hong Kong on December 1, 2009.[30]
[edit] Identification
Diamonds can be identified by their high thermal conductivity. Their high refractive index is also indicative, but other materials have similar refractivity. Diamonds cut glass, but this does not positively identify a diamond because other materials, such as quartz, also lie above glass on the Mohs scale and can also cut it. Diamonds can scratch other diamonds, but this can result in damage to one or both stones. Hardness tests are infrequently used in practical gemology because of their potentially destructive nature.[14] The extreme hardness and high value of diamond means that gems are typically polished slowly using painstaking traditional techniques and greater attention to detail than is the case with most other gemstones;[8] these tend to result in extremely flat, highly polished facets with exceptionally sharp facet edges. Diamonds also possess an extremely high refractive index and fairly high dispersion. Taken together, these factors affect the overall appearance of a polished diamond and most diamantaires still rely upon skilled use of a loupe (magnifying glass) to identify diamonds 'by eye'.[31]
[edit] Natural history
The formation of natural diamond requires very specific conditions—exposure of carbon-bearing materials to high pressure, ranging approximately between 45 and 60 kilobars (4.5 and 6 GPa), but at a comparatively low temperature range between approximately 900–1300 °C. These conditions are met in two places on Earth; in the lithospheric mantle below relatively stable continental plates, and at the site of a meteorite strike.[32]
[edit] Formation in cratons
One face of an uncut octahedral diamond, showing trigons (of positive and negative relief) formed by natural chemical etchingThe conditions for diamond formation to happen in the lithospheric mantle occur at considerable depth corresponding to the requirements of temperature and pressure. These depths are estimated between 140 and 190 km though occasionally diamonds have crystallized at depths about 300 km as well.[33] The rate at which temperature changes with increasing depth into the Earth varies greatly in different parts of the Earth. In particular, under oceanic plates the temperature rises more quickly with depth, beyond the range required for diamond formation at the depth required. The correct combination of temperature and pressure is only found in the thick, ancient, and stable parts of continental plates where regions of lithosphere known as cratons exist. Long residence in the cratonic lithosphere allows diamond crystals to grow larger.[33]
The slightly misshapen octahedral shape of this rough diamond crystal in matrix is typical of the mineral. Its lustrous faces also indicate that this crystal is from a primary deposit.Through studies of carbon isotope ratios (similar to the methodology used in carbon dating, except with the stable isotopes C-12 and C-13), it has been shown that the carbon found in diamonds comes from both inorganic and organic sources. Some diamonds, known as harzburgitic, are formed from inorganic carbon originally found deep in the Earth's mantle. In contrast, eclogitic diamonds contain organic carbon from organic detritus that has been pushed down from the surface of the Earth's crust through subduction (see plate tectonics) before transforming into diamond. These two different source of carbon have measurably different 13C:12C ratios. Diamonds that have come to the Earth's surface are generally quite old, ranging from under 1 billion to 3.3 billion years old. This is 22% to 73% of the age of the Earth.[33]
Diamonds occur most often as euhedral or rounded octahedra and twinned octahedra known as macles. As diamond's crystal structure has a cubic arrangement of the atoms, they have many facets that belong to a cube, octahedron, rhombicosidodecahedron, tetrakis hexahedron or disdyakis dodecahedron. The crystals can have rounded off and unexpressive edges and can be elongated. Sometimes they are found grown together or form double "twinned" crystals at the surfaces of the octahedron. These different shapes and habits of some diamonds result from differing external circumstances. Diamonds (especially those with rounded crystal faces) are commonly found coated in nyf, an opaque gum-like skin.[34]
[edit] Formation in meteorite impact craters
Diamonds can also form under other naturally occurring high-pressure conditions. Very small diamonds of micrometer and nanometer sizes, known as microdiamonds or nanodiamonds respectively, have been found in meteorite impact craters. Such impact events create shock zones of high pressure and temperature suitable for diamond formation. Impact-type microdiamonds can be used as an indicator of ancient impact craters.[32]
[edit] Extraterrestrial formation
Not all diamonds found on Earth originated here. A type of diamond called carbonado that is found in South America and Africa may have been deposited there via an asteroid impact (not formed from the impact) about 3 billion years ago. These diamonds may have formed in the intrastellar environment, but as of 2008, there was no scientific consensus on how carbonado diamonds originated.[35][36]
Presolar grains in many meteorites found on Earth contain nanodiamonds of extraterrestrial origin, probably formed in supernovas. Scientific evidence indicates that white dwarf stars have a core of crystallized carbon and oxygen nuclei. The largest of these found in the universe so far, BPM 37093, is located 50 light-years (4.7×1014 km) away in the constellation Centaurus. A news release from the Harvard-Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics described the 2,500-mile (4,000 km)-wide stellar core as a diamond.[37] It was referred to as Lucy, after the Beatles' song "Lucy in the Sky With Diamonds".[17][38]
[edit] Surfacing
Schematic diagram of a volcanic pipeDiamond-bearing rock is brought close to the surface through deep-origin volcanic eruptions. The magma for such a volcano must originate at a depth where diamonds can be formed[33]—150 km (93 mi) or more (three times or more the depth of source magma for most volcanoes). This is a relatively rare occurrence. These typically small surface volcanic craters extend downward in formations known as volcanic pipes.[33] The pipes contain material that was transported toward the surface by volcanic action, but was not ejected before the volcanic activity ceased. During eruption these pipes are open to the surface, resulting in open circulation; many xenoliths of surface rock and even wood and fossils are found in volcanic pipes. Diamond-bearing volcanic pipes are closely related to the oldest, coolest regions of continental crust (cratons). This is because cratons are very thick, and their lithospheric mantle extends to great enough depth that diamonds are stable. Not all pipes contain diamonds, and even fewer contain enough diamonds to make mining economically viable.[33]
The magma in volcanic pipes is usually one of two characteristic types, which cool into igneous rock known as either kimberlite or lamproite.[33] The magma itself does not contain diamond; instead, it acts as an elevator that carries deep-formed rocks (xenoliths), minerals (xenocrysts), and fluids upward. These rocks are characteristically rich in magnesium-bearing olivine, pyroxene, and amphibole minerals[33] which are often altered to serpentine by heat and fluids during and after eruption. Certain indicator minerals typically occur within diamantiferous kimberlites and are used as mineralogical tracers by prospectors, who follow the indicator trail back to the volcanic pipe which may contain diamonds. These minerals are rich in chromium (Cr) or titanium (Ti), elements which impart bright colors to the minerals. The most common indicator minerals are chromium garnets (usually bright red chromium-pyrope, and occasionally green ugrandite-series garnets), eclogitic garnets, orange titanium-pyrope, red high-chromium spinels, dark chromite, bright green chromium-diopside, glassy green olivine, black picroilmenite, and magnetite. Kimberlite deposits are known as blue ground for the deeper serpentinized part of the deposits, or as yellow ground for the near surface smectite clay and carbonate weathered and oxidized portion.[33]
Once diamonds have been transported to the surface by magma in a volcanic pipe, they may erode out and be distributed over a large area. A volcanic pipe containing diamonds is known as a primary source of diamonds. Secondary sources of diamonds include all areas where a significant number of diamonds have been eroded out of their kimberlite or lamproite matrix, and accumulated because of water or wind action. These include alluvial deposits and deposits along existing and ancient shorelines, where loose diamonds tend to accumulate because of their size and density. Diamonds have also rarely been found in deposits left behind by glaciers (notably in Wisconsin and Indiana); in contrast to alluvial deposits, glacial deposits are minor and are therefore not viable commercial sources of diamond.[33]
[edit] Production
Diamond output in 2005See also: List of diamond mines
Approximately 130 million carats (26,000 kg (57,000 lb)) of diamonds are mined annually, with a total value of nearly US$9 billion, and about 100,000 kg (220,000 lb) are synthesized annually.[39]
Roughly 49% of diamonds originate from central and southern Africa, although significant sources of the mineral have been discovered in Canada, India, Russia, Brazil, and Australia.[40] They are mined from kimberlite and lamproite volcanic pipes, which can bring diamond crystals, originating from deep within the Earth where high pressures and temperatures enable them to form, to the surface. The mining and distribution of natural diamonds are subjects of frequent controversy such as concerns over the sale of blood diamonds or conflict diamonds by African paramilitary groups.[41] The diamond supply chain is controlled by a limited number of powerful businesses, and is also highly concentrated in a small number of locations around the world (see figure).
Only a very small fraction of the diamond ore consists of actual diamonds. The ore is crushed, during which care is required not to destroy larger diamonds, and then sorted by density. Today, diamonds are located in the diamond-rich density fraction with the help of X-ray fluorescence, after which the final sorting steps are done by hand. Before the use of X-rays became commonplace,[42] the separation was done with grease belts; diamonds have a stronger tendency to stick to grease than the other minerals in the ore.[20]
Historically diamonds were found only in alluvial deposits in southern India.[43] India led the world in diamond production from the time of their discovery in approximately the 9th century BC[4][44] to the mid-18th century AD, but the commercial potential of these sources had been exhausted by the late 18th century and at that time India was eclipsed by Brazil where the first non-Indian diamonds were found in 1725.[4]
Diamond extraction from primary deposits (kimberlites and lamproites) started in the 1870s after the discovery of the Diamond Fields in South Africa.[45] Production has increased over time and now an accumulated total of 4.5 billion carats have been mined since that date.[46] Twenty percent of that amount has been mined in the last five years, and during the last 10 years, nine new mines have started production; four more are waiting to be opened soon. Most of these mines are located in Canada, Zimbabwe, Angola, and one in Russia.[46]
In the U.S., diamonds have been found in Arkansas, Colorado, and Montana.[47][48] In 2004, the discovery of a microscopic diamond in the U.S. led to the January 2008 bulk-sampling of kimberlite pipes in a remote part of Montana.[48]
Today, most commercially viable diamond deposits are in Russia (mostly in Sakha Republic, for example Mir pipe and Udachnaya pipe), Botswana, Australia (Northern and Western Australia) and the Democratic Republic of Congo.[49] In 2005, Russia produced almost one-fifth of the global diamond output, reports the British Geological Survey. Australia boasts the richest diamantiferous pipe, with production from the Argyle diamond mine reaching peak levels of 42 metric tons per year in the 1990s.[47][50] There are also commercial deposits being actively mined in the Northwest Territories of Canada and Brazil.[40] Diamond prospectors continue to search the globe for diamond-bearing kimberlite and lamproite pipes.
[edit] Controversial sources
Main articles: Kimberley Process, Blood diamond, and Child labour in the diamond industry
In some of the more politically unstable central African and west African countries, revolutionary groups have taken control of diamond mines, using proceeds from diamond sales to finance their operations. Diamonds sold through this process are known as conflict diamonds or blood diamonds.[41] Major diamond trading corporations continue to fund and fuel these conflicts by doing business with armed groups. In response to public concerns that their diamond purchases were contributing to war and human rights abuses in central and western Africa, the United Nations, the diamond industry and diamond-trading nations introduced the Kimberley Process in 2002.[51] The Kimberley Process aims to ensure that conflict diamonds do not become intermixed with the diamonds not controlled by such rebel groups. This is done by requiring diamond-producing countries to provide proof that the money they make from selling the diamonds is not used to fund criminal or revolutionary activities. Although the Kimberley Process has been moderately successful in limiting the number of conflict diamonds entering the market, some still find their way in. Conflict diamonds constitute 2–3% of all diamonds traded.[52] Two major flaws still hinder the effectiveness of the Kimberley Process: (1) the relative ease of smuggling diamonds across African borders, and (2) the violent nature of diamond mining in nations that are not in a technical state of war and whose diamonds are therefore considered "clean".[51]
The Canadian Government has set up a body known as Canadian Diamond Code of Conduct[53] to help authenticate Canadian diamonds. This is a stringent tracking system of diamonds and helps protect the "conflict free" label of Canadian diamonds.[54]
[edit] Commercial markets
See also: Diamonds as an investment
A round brilliant cut diamond set in a ringThe diamond industry can be separated into two distinct categories: one dealing with gem-grade diamonds and another for industrial-grade diamonds. While a large trade in both types of diamonds exists, the two markets act in dramatically different ways.
[edit] Gemstones and their distribution
Main article: Diamond (gemstone)
A large trade in gem-grade diamonds exists. Unlike other commodities, such as most precious metals, there is a substantial mark-up in the retail sale of gem diamonds.[55] There is a well-established market for resale of polished diamonds (e.g. pawnbroking, auctions, second-hand jewelry stores, diamantaires, bourses, etc.). One hallmark of the trade in gem-quality diamonds is its remarkable concentration: wholesale trade and diamond cutting is limited to just a few locations; In 2003, 92% of the world's diamonds were cut and polished in Surat, India.[56] Other important centers of diamond cutting and trading are Antwerp, where the International Gemological Institute is based, London, New York City, Tel Aviv, and Amsterdam. A single company—De Beers—controls a significant proportion of the trade in diamonds.[57] They are based in Johannesburg, South Africa and London, England. One contributory factor is the geological nature of diamond deposits: several large primary kimberlite-pipe mines each account for significant portions of market share (such as the Jwaneng mine in Botswana, which is a single large pit operated by De Beers that can produce between 12.5 to 15 million carats of diamonds per year,[58]) whereas secondary alluvial diamond deposits tend to be fragmented amongst many different operators because they can be dispersed over many hundreds of square kilometers (e.g., alluvial deposits in Brazil).
The production and distribution of diamonds is largely consolidated in the hands of a few key players, and concentrated in traditional diamond trading centers, the most important being Antwerp, where 80% of all rough diamonds, 50% of all cut diamonds and more than 50% of all rough, cut and industrial diamonds combined are handled.[59] This makes Antwerp a de facto "world diamond capital". Another important diamond center is New York City, where almost 80% of the world's diamonds are sold, including auction sales.[59] The DeBeers company, as the world's largest diamond miner holds a dominant position in the industry, and has done so since soon after its founding in 1888 by the British imperialist Cecil Rhodes. De Beers owns or controls a significant portion of the world's rough diamond production facilities (mines) and distribution channels for gem-quality diamonds. The Diamond Trading Company (DTC) is a subsidiary of De Beers and markets rough diamonds from De Beers-operated mines. De Beers and its subsidiaries own mines that produce some 40% of annual world diamond production. For most of the 20th century over 80% of the world's rough diamonds passed through De Beers,[60] but in the period 2001–2009 the figure has decreased to around 45%.[61] De Beers sold off the vast majority of its diamond stockpile in the late 1990s – early 2000s[62] and the remainder largely represents working stock (diamonds that are being sorted before sale).[63] This was well documented in the press[64] but remains little known to the general public.
As a part of reducing its influence, De Beers withdrew from purchasing diamonds on the open market in 1999 and ceased, at the end of 2008, purchasing Russian diamonds mined by the largest Russian diamond company Alrosa.[65] Alrosa had to suspend their sales in October 2008 due to the global energy crisis and was expected to resume them in late 2009.[66] Apart from Alrosa, other important diamond mining companies include BHP Billiton, which is the world's largest mining company;[67] Rio Tinto Group, the owner of Argyle (100%), Diavik (60%), and Murowa (78%) diamond mines;[68] and Petra Diamonds, the owner of several major diamond mines in Africa.
Further down the supply chain, members of The World Federation of Diamond Bourses (WFDB) act as a medium for wholesale diamond exchange, trading both polished and rough diamonds. The WFDB consists of independent diamond bourses in major cutting centers such as Tel Aviv, Antwerp, Johannesburg and other cities across the USA, Europe and Asia.[20] In 2000, the WFDB and The International Diamond Manufacturers Association established the World Diamond Council to prevent the trading of diamonds used to fund war and inhumane acts. WFDB's additional activities include sponsoring the World Diamond Congress every two years, as well as the establishment of the International Diamond Council (IDC) to oversee diamond grading.
Once purchased by Sightholders (which is a trademark term referring to the companies that have a three-year supply contract with DTC), diamonds are cut and polished in preparation for sale as gemstones ('industrial' stones are regarded as a by-product of the gemstone market; they are used for abrasives).[69] The cutting and polishing of rough diamonds is a specialized skill that is concentrated in a limited number of locations worldwide.[69] Traditional diamond cutting centers are Antwerp, Amsterdam, Johannesburg, New York City, and Tel Aviv. Recently, diamond cutting centers have been established in China, India, Thailand, Namibia and Botswana.[69] Cutting centers with lower cost of labor, notably Surat in Gujarat, India, handle a larger number of smaller carat diamonds, while smaller quantities of larger or more valuable diamonds are more likely to be handled in Europe or North America. The recent expansion of this industry in India, employing low cost labor, has allowed smaller diamonds to be prepared as gems in greater quantities than was previously economically feasible.[59]
Diamonds which have been prepared as gemstones are sold on diamond exchanges called bourses. There are 26 registered diamond bourses in the world.[70] Bourses are the final tightly controlled step in the diamond supply chain; wholesalers and even retailers are able to buy relatively small lots of diamonds at the bourses, after which they are prepared for final sale to the consumer. Diamonds can be sold already set in jewelry, or sold unset ("loose"). According to the Rio Tinto Group, in 2002 the diamonds produced and released to the market were valued at US$9 billion as rough diamonds, US$14 billion after being cut and polished, US$28 billion in wholesale diamond jewelry, and US$57 billion in retail sales.[71]
[edit] Marketing
The image of diamond as a valuable commodity has been preserved through clever marketing campaigns. In particular, the De Beers diamond advertising campaign is acknowledged as one of the most successful and innovative campaigns in history. N. W. Ayer & Son, the advertising firm retained by De Beers in the mid-20th century, succeeded in reviving the American diamond market and opened up new markets, even in countries where no diamond tradition had existed before. N. W. Ayer's multifaceted marketing campaign included product placement, advertising the diamond itself rather than the De Beers brand, and building associations with celebrities and royalty. This coordinated campaign has lasted decades and continues today; it is perhaps best captured by the slogan "a diamond is forever".[7] It should be noted however, that graphite is the most stable allotrope of carbon, and as such diamond should in theory eventually become graphite.
Another example of successful diamond marketing is brown Australian diamonds. Brown-colored diamonds have always constituted a significant part of the diamond production, but were considered worthless for jewelry; they were not even assessed on the diamond color scale, and were predominantly used for industrial purposes. The attitude has changed drastically after the development of Argyle diamond mine in Australia in 1986. As a result of an aggressive marketing campaign, brown diamonds have become acceptable gems.[72][73] The change was mostly due to the numbers: the Argyle mine, with its 35 million carats (7,000 kg) of diamonds per year, makes about one-third of global production of natural diamonds;[74] 80% of Argyle diamonds are brown.[75]
[edit] Cutting
Main articles: Diamond cutting and Diamond cut
The Darya-I-Nur Diamond—an example of unusual diamond cut and jewelry arrangementThe mined rough diamonds are converted into gems through a multi-step process called "cutting". Diamonds are extremely hard, but also brittle and can be split up by a single blow. Therefore, diamond cutting is traditionally considered as a delicate procedure requiring skills, scientific knowledge, tools and experience. Its final goal is to produce a faceted jewel where the specific angles between the facets would optimize the diamond luster, that is dispersion of white light, whereas the number and area of facets would determine the weight of the final product. The weight reduction upon cutting is significant and can be of the order of 50%.[42] Several possible shapes are considered, but the final decision is often determined not only by scientific, but also practical considerations. For example the diamond might be intended for display or for wear, in a ring or a necklace, singled or surrounded by other gems of certain color and shape.[76]
The most time-consuming part of the cutting is the preliminary analysis of the rough stone. It needs to address a large number of issues, bears much responsibility, and therefore can last years in case of unique diamonds. The following issues are considered:
The hardness of diamond and its ability to cleave strongly depend on the crystal orientation. Therefore, the crystallographic structure of the diamond to be cut is analyzed using X-ray diffraction in order to choose the optimal cutting directions.
Most diamonds contain visible non-diamond inclusions and crystal flaws. The cutter has to decide which flaws are to be removed by the cutting and which could be kept.
The diamond can be split by a single, well calculated blow of a hammer to a pointed tool, which is quick, but risky. Alternatively, it can be cut with a diamond saw, which is a more reliable but tedious procedure.[76][77]
After initial cutting, the diamond is shaped in numerous stages of polishing. Unlike cutting, which is a responsible but quick operation, polishing removes material by gradual erosion and is extremely time consuming. The associated technique is well developed; it is considered as a routine and can be performed by technicians.[78] After polishing, the diamond is reexamined for possible flaws, either remaining or induced by the process. Those flaws are concealed through various diamond enhancement techniques, such as repolishing, crack filling, or clever arrangement of the stone in the jewelry. Remaining non-diamond inclusions are removed through laser drilling and filling of the voids produced.[14]
[edit] Industrial uses
A scalpel with synthetic diamond blade
Close-up photograph of an angle grinder blade with tiny diamonds shown embedded in the metalThe market for industrial-grade diamonds operates much differently from its gem-grade counterpart. Industrial diamonds are valued mostly for their hardness and heat conductivity, making many of the gemological characteristics of diamonds, such as clarity and color, irrelevant for most applications. This helps explain why 80% of mined diamonds (equal to about 135 million carats or 27 metric tons annually), unsuitable for use as gemstones, are destined for industrial use. In addition to mined diamonds, synthetic diamonds found industrial applications almost immediately after their invention in the 1950s; another 570 million carats (114 tons) of synthetic diamond is produced annually for industrial use. Approximately 90% of diamond grinding grit is currently of synthetic origin.[40]
The boundary between gem-quality diamonds and industrial diamonds is poorly defined and partly depends on market conditions (for example, if demand for polished diamonds is high, some suitable stones will be polished into low-quality or small gemstones rather than being sold for industrial use). Within the category of industrial diamonds, there is a sub-category comprising the lowest-quality, mostly opaque stones, which are known as bort.[79]
Industrial use of diamonds has historically been associated with their hardness; this property makes diamond the ideal material for cutting and grinding tools. As the hardest known naturally occurring material, diamond can be used to polish, cut, or wear away any material, including other diamonds. Common industrial adaptations of this ability include diamond-tipped drill bits and saws, and the use of diamond powder as an abrasive. Less expensive industrial-grade diamonds, known as bort, with more flaws and poorer color than gems, are used for such purposes.[80] Diamond is not suitable for machining ferrous alloys at high speeds, as carbon is soluble in iron at the high temperatures created by high-speed machining, leading to greatly increased wear on diamond tools compared to alternatives.[81]
Specialized applications include use in laboratories as containment for high pressure experiments (see diamond anvil cell), high-performance bearings, and limited use in specialized windows.[79] With the continuing advances being made in the production of synthetic diamonds, future applications are becoming feasible. Garnering much excitement is the possible use of diamond as a semiconductor suitable to build microchips, or the use of diamond as a heat sink[82] in electronics.
[edit] Synthetics, simulants, and enhancements
[edit] Synthetics
Main article: Synthetic diamond
Synthetic diamonds of various colors grown by the high-pressure high-temperature techniqueSynthetic diamonds are diamonds manufactured in a laboratory, as opposed to natural diamonds which form naturally within the Earth. The gemological and industrial uses of diamond have created a large demand for rough stones. This demand has been satisfied in large part by synthetic diamonds, which have been manufactured by various processes for more than half a century. However, in recent years it has become possible to produce gem-quality synthetic diamonds of significant size.[33]
The majority of commercially available synthetic diamonds are yellow and are produced by so called High Pressure High Temperature (HPHT) processes.[83] The yellow color is caused by nitrogen impurities. Other colors may also be reproduced such as blue, green or pink, which are a result of the addition of boron or from irradiation after synthesis.[84]
Colorless gem cut from diamond grown by chemical vapor depositionAnother popular method of growing synthetic diamond is chemical vapor deposition (CVD). The growth occurs under low pressure (below atmospheric pressure). It involves feeding a mixture of gases (typically 1 to 99 methane to hydrogen) into a chamber and splitting them to chemically active radicals in a plasma ignited by microwaves, hot filament, arc discharge, welding torch or laser.[85] This method is mostly used for coatings, but can also produce single crystals several millimeters in size (see picture).[39]
At present, the annual production of gem quality synthetic diamonds is only a few thousand carats, whereas the total production of natural diamonds is around 120 million carats. Despite this fact, a purchaser is more likely to encounter a synthetic when looking for a fancy-colored diamond because nearly all synthetic diamonds are fancy-colored, while only 0.01% of natural diamonds are.[86]
[edit] Simulants
Main article: Diamond simulant
Gem-cut synthetic silicon carbideA diamond simulant is defined as a non-diamond material that is used to simulate the appearance of a diamond. Diamond-simulant gems are often referred to as diamante. The most familiar diamond simulant to most consumers is cubic zirconia. The popular gemstone moissanite (silicon carbide) is often treated as a diamond simulant, although it is a gemstone in its own right. While moissanite looks similar to diamond, its main disadvantage as a diamond simulant is that cubic zirconia is far cheaper and arguably equally convincing. Both cubic zirconia and moissanite are produced synthetically.[87]
[edit] Enhancements
Main article: Diamond enhancement
Diamond enhancements are specific treatments performed on natural or synthetic diamonds (usually those already cut and polished into a gem), which are designed to better the gemological characteristics of the stone in one or more ways. These include laser drilling to remove inclusions, application of sealants to fill cracks, treatments to improve a white diamond's color grade, and treatments to give fancy color to a white diamond.[88]
Coatings are increasingly used to give a diamond simulant such as cubic zirconia a more "diamond-like" appearance. One such substance is diamond-like carbon—an amorphous carbonaceous material that has some physical properties similar to those of the diamond. Advertising suggests that such a coating would transfer some of these diamond-like properties to the coated stone, hence enhancing the diamond simulant. Techniques such as Raman spectroscopy should easily identify such a treatment.[89]
[edit] Identification
Early diamond identification tests included a scratch test relying on the superior hardness of diamond. This test is destructive, as a diamond can scratch diamond, and is rarely used nowadays. Instead, diamond identification relies on its superior thermal conductivity. Electronic thermal probes are widely used in the gemological centers to separate diamonds from their imitations. These probes consist of a pair of battery-powered thermistors mounted in a fine copper tip. One thermistor functions as a heating device while the other measures the temperature of the copper tip: if the stone being tested is a diamond, it will conduct the tip's thermal energy rapidly enough to produce a measurable temperature drop. This test takes about 2–3 seconds.[90]
Whereas the thermal probe can separate diamonds from most of their simulants, distinguishing between various types of diamond, for example synthetic or natural, irradiated or non-irradiated, etc., requires more advanced, optical techniques. Those techniques are also used for some diamonds simulants, such as silicon carbide, which pass the thermal conductivity test. Optical techniques can distinguish between natural diamonds and synthetic diamonds. They can also identify the vast majority of treated natural diamonds.[91] "Perfect" crystals (at the atomic lattice level) have never been found, so both natural and synthetic diamonds always possess characteristic imperfections, arising from the circumstances of their crystal growth, that allow them to be distinguished from each other.[92]
Laboratories use techniques such as spectroscopy, microscopy and luminescence under shortwave ultraviolet light to determine a diamond's origin.[91] They also use specially made machines to aid them in the identification process. Two screening machines are the DiamondSure and the DiamondView, both produced by the DTC and marketed by the GIA.[93]
Several methods for identifying synthetic diamonds can be performed, depending on the method of production and the color of the diamond. CVD diamonds can usually be identified by an orange fluorescence. D-J colored diamonds can be screened through the Swiss Gemmological Institute's[94] Diamond Spotter. Stones in the D-Z color range can be examined through the DiamondSure UV/visible spectrometer, a tool developed by De Beers.[92] Similarly, natural diamonds usually have minor imperfections and flaws, such as inclusions of foreign material, that are not seen in synthetic diamonds
General
Category Native Minerals
Chemical formula C
Identification
Molar mass 12.01 g·mol-1
Color Typically yellow, brown or gray to colorless. Less often blue, green, black, translucent white, pink, violet, orange, purple and red.
Crystal habit Octahedral
Crystal system Isometric-Hexoctahedral (Cubic)
Cleavage 111 (perfect in four directions)
Fracture Conchoidal (shell-like)
Mohs scale hardness 10
Luster Adamantine
Streak Colorless
Diaphaneity Transparent to subtransparent to translucent
Specific gravity 3.52±0.01
Density 3.5–3.53 g/cm3
Polish luster Adamantine
Optical properties Isotropic
Refractive index 2.418 (at 500 nm)
Birefringence None
Pleochroism None
Dispersion 0.044
Melting point Pressure dependent
References [1][2]
In mineralogy, diamond (from the ancient Greek αδάμας – adámas "unbreakable") is an allotrope of carbon, where the carbon atoms are arranged in a variation of the face-centered cubic crystal structure called a diamond lattice. Diamond is less stable than graphite, but the conversion rate from diamond to graphite is negligible at ambient conditions. Diamond is renowned as a material with superlative physical qualities, most of which originate from the strong covalent bonding between its atoms. In particular, diamond has the highest hardness and thermal conductivity of any bulk material. Those properties determine the major industrial application of diamond in cutting and polishing tools.
Diamond has remarkable optical characteristics. Because of its extremely rigid lattice, it can be contaminated by very few types of impurities, such as boron and nitrogen. Combined with wide transparency, this results in the clear, colorless appearance of most natural diamonds. Small amounts of defects or impurities (about one per million of lattice atoms) color diamond blue (boron), yellow (nitrogen), brown (lattice defects), green, purple, pink, orange or red. Diamond also has relatively high optical dispersion, that is ability to disperse light of different colors, which results in its characteristic luster. Excellent optical and mechanical properties, combined with efficient marketing, make diamond the most popular gemstone.
Most natural diamonds are formed at high-pressure high-temperature conditions existing at depths of 140 to 190 kilometers (87 to 120 mi) in the Earth mantle. Carbon-containing minerals provide the carbon source, and the growth occurs over periods from 1 billion to 3.3 billion years (25% to 75% of the age of the Earth). Diamonds are brought close to the Earth surface through deep volcanic eruptions by a magma, which cools into igneous rocks known as kimberlites and lamproites. Diamonds can also be produced synthetically in a high-pressure high-temperature process which approximately simulates the conditions in the Earth mantle. An alternative, and completely different growth technique is chemical vapor deposition (CVD). Several non-diamond materials, which include cubic zirconia and silicon carbide and are often called diamond simulants, resemble diamond in appearance and many properties. Special gemological techniques have been specially developed to distinguish natural and synthetic diamonds and diamond simulants.
Contents [hide]
1 History
2 Material properties
2.1 Hardness
2.2 Electrical conductivity
2.3 Color
2.4 Identification
3 Natural history
3.1 Formation in cratons
3.2 Formation in meteorite impact craters
3.3 Extraterrestrial formation
3.4 Surfacing
4 Production
4.1 Controversial sources
5 Commercial markets
5.1 Gemstones and their distribution
5.1.1 Marketing
5.1.2 Cutting
5.2 Industrial uses
6 Synthetics, simulants, and enhancements
6.1 Synthetics
6.2 Simulants
6.3 Enhancements
6.4 Identification
7 See also
8 References
9 Books
10 External links
[edit] History
See also: Diamond (gemstone)
The name diamond is derived from the ancient Greek αδάμας (adámas), "proper", "unalterable", "unbreakable, untamed", from ἀ- (a-), "un-" + δαμάω (damáō), "I overpower, I tame".[3] Diamonds are thought to have been first recognized and mined in India, where significant alluvial deposits of the stone could be found many centuries ago along the rivers Penner, Krishna and Godavari. Diamonds have been known in India for at least 3,000 years but most likely 6,000 years.[4]
Diamonds have been treasured as gemstones since their use as religious icons in ancient India. Their usage in engraving tools also dates to early human history.[5][6] The popularity of diamonds has risen since the 19th century because of increased supply, improved cutting and polishing techniques, growth in the world economy, and innovative and successful advertising campaigns.[7]
In 1772, Antoine Lavoisier used a lens to concentrate the rays of the sun on a diamond in an atmosphere of oxygen, and showed that the only product of the combustion was carbon dioxide, proving that diamond is composed of carbon. Later in 1797, Smithson Tennant repeated and expanded that experiment. By demonstrating that burning diamond and graphite (charcoal) releases the same amount of gas he established the chemical equivalence of these substances.[8]
The most familiar use of diamonds today is as gemstones used for adornment, a use which dates back into antiquity. The dispersion of white light into spectral colors is the primary gemological characteristic of gem diamonds. In the 20th century, experts in gemology have developed methods of grading diamonds and other gemstones based on the characteristics most important to their value as a gem. Four characteristics, known informally as the four Cs, are now commonly used as the basic descriptors of diamonds: these are carat, cut, color, and clarity.[9] A large, flawless diamond is known as a paragon.
[edit] Material properties
Main articles: Material properties of diamond and Crystallographic defects in diamond
Theoretically predicted phase diagram of carbon
Diamond and graphite are two allotropes of carbon: pure forms of the same element that differ in structure.A diamond is a transparent crystal of tetrahedrally bonded carbon atoms (sp3) that crystallizes into the diamond lattice which is a variation of the face centered cubic structure. Diamonds have been adapted for many uses because of the material's exceptional physical characteristics. Most notable are its extreme hardness and thermal conductivity (900–2,320 W·m−1·K−1),[10] as well as wide bandgap and high optical dispersion.[11] Above 1,700 °C (1,973 K / 3,583 °F) in vacuum or oxygen-free atmosphere, diamond converts to graphite; in air, transformation starts at ~700 °C.[12] Naturally occurring diamonds have a density ranging from 3.15–3.53 g/cm3, with pure diamond close to 3.52 g/cm3.[1] Despite the hardness of diamonds, the chemical bonds that hold the carbon atoms in diamonds together are weaker than those that hold together the other form of pure carbon, graphite. The difference is that in diamonds, the bonds form an inflexible three-dimensional lattice. In graphite, the atoms are tightly bonded into sheets, which can slide easily over one another.[13]
[edit] Hardness
Diamond is the hardest natural material known, where hardness is defined as resistance to scratching and is graded between 1 (softest) and 10 (hardest) using the Mohs scale of mineral hardness. Diamond has a hardness of 10 (hardest) on this scale.[14] Diamond's hardness has been known since antiquity, and is the source of its name.
Diamond hardness depends on its purity, crystalline perfection and orientation: hardness is higher for flawless, pure crystals oriented to the ⟨111⟩ direction (along the longest diagonal of the cubic diamond lattice).[15] Therefore, whereas it might be possible to scratch some diamonds with other materials, such as boron nitride, the hardest diamonds can only be scratched by other diamonds. In particular, nanocrystalline diamond aggregates were measured to be harder than any large single crystal diamond. Those aggregates are produced by high-pressure high-temperature treatment of graphite or fullerite (C60).[16]
The hardness of diamond contributes to its suitability as a gemstone. Because it can only be scratched by other diamonds, it maintains its polish extremely well. Unlike many other gems, it is well-suited to daily wear because of its resistance to scratching—perhaps contributing to its popularity as the preferred gem in engagement or wedding rings, which are often worn every day.
The hardest natural diamonds mostly originate from the Copeton and Bingara fields located in the New England area in New South Wales, Australia. These diamonds are generally small, perfect to semiperfect octahedra, and are used to polish other diamonds. Their hardness is associated with the crystal growth form, which is single-stage crystal growth. Most other diamonds show more evidence of multiple growth stages, which produce inclusions, flaws, and defect planes in the crystal lattice, all of which affect their hardness. It is possible to treat regular diamonds under a combination of high pressure and high temperature to produce diamonds that are harder than the diamonds used in hardness gauges.[17]
Somewhat related to hardness is another mechanical property toughness, which is a material's ability to resist breakage from forceful impact. The toughness of natural diamond has been measured as 2.0 MPa·m1/2,[18] and the critical stress intensity factor is 3.4 MN·m−3/2.[19] Those values are good compared to other gemstones, but poor compared to most engineering materials. As with any material, the macroscopic geometry of a diamond contributes to its resistance to breakage. Diamond has a cleavage plane and is therefore more fragile in some orientations than others. Diamond cutters use this attribute to cleave some stones, prior to faceting.[20]
[edit] Electrical conductivity
Other specialized applications also exist or are being developed, including use as semiconductors: some blue diamonds are natural semiconductors, in contrast to most diamonds, which are excellent electrical insulators.[21] The conductivity and blue color originate from boron impurity. Boron substitutes for carbon atoms in the diamond lattice, donating a hole into the valence band.[21]
Substantial conductivity is commonly observed in nominally undoped diamond grown by chemical vapor deposition. This conductivity is associated with hydrogen-related species adsorbed at the surface, and it can be removed by annealing or other surface treatments.[22][23]
[edit] Color
Main article: Diamond color
Brown diamonds at the National Museum of Natural History in Washington, D.CDiamond has a wide bandgap of 5.5 eV corresponding to the deep ultraviolet wavelength of 225 nanometers. This means pure diamond should transmit visible light and appear as a clear colorless crystal. Colors in diamond originate from lattice defects and impurities. The diamond crystal lattice is exceptionally strong and only atoms of nitrogen, boron and hydrogen can be introduced into diamond during the growth at significant concentrations (up to atomic percents). Transition metals Ni and Co, which are commonly used for growth of synthetic diamond by high-pressure high-temperature techniques, have been detected in diamond as individual atoms; the maximum concentration is 0.01% for Ni[24] and even much less for Co. Virtually any element can be introduced to diamond by ion implantation.[25]
Nitrogen is by far the most common impurity found in gem diamonds. Nitrogen is responsible for the yellow and brown color in diamonds. Boron is responsible for the gray blue colors.[11] Color in diamond has two additional sources: irradiation (usually by alpha particles), that causes the color in green diamonds; and physical deformation of the diamond crystal known as plastic deformation. Plastic deformation is the cause of color in some brown[26] and perhaps pink and red diamonds.[27] In order of rarity, colorless diamond, by far the most common, is followed by yellow and brown, by far the most common colors, then by blue, green, black, translucent white, pink, violet, orange, purple, and the rarest, red.[20] "Black", or Carbonado, diamonds are not truly black, but rather contain numerous dark inclusions that give the gems their dark appearance. Colored diamonds contain impurities or structural defects that cause the coloration, while pure or nearly pure diamonds are transparent and colorless. Most diamond impurities replace a carbon atom in the crystal lattice, known as a carbon flaw. The most common impurity, nitrogen, causes a slight to intense yellow coloration depending upon the type and concentration of nitrogen present.[20] The Gemological Institute of America (GIA) classifies low saturation yellow and brown diamonds as diamonds in the normal color range, and applies a grading scale from "D" (colorless) to "Z" (light yellow). Diamonds of a different color, such as blue, are called fancy colored diamonds, and fall under a different grading scale.[20]
In 2008, the Wittelsbach Diamond, a 35.56-carat (7.11 g) blue diamond once belonging to the King of Spain, fetched over US$24 million at a Christie's auction.[28] In May 2009, a 7.03-carat (1.41 g) blue diamond fetched the highest price per carat ever paid for a diamond when it was sold at auction for 10.5 million Swiss francs (6.97 million Euro or US$9.5 million at the time).[29] That record was however beaten the same year: a 5-carat vivid pink diamond was sold for $10.8 million in Hong Kong on December 1, 2009.[30]
[edit] Identification
Diamonds can be identified by their high thermal conductivity. Their high refractive index is also indicative, but other materials have similar refractivity. Diamonds cut glass, but this does not positively identify a diamond because other materials, such as quartz, also lie above glass on the Mohs scale and can also cut it. Diamonds can scratch other diamonds, but this can result in damage to one or both stones. Hardness tests are infrequently used in practical gemology because of their potentially destructive nature.[14] The extreme hardness and high value of diamond means that gems are typically polished slowly using painstaking traditional techniques and greater attention to detail than is the case with most other gemstones;[8] these tend to result in extremely flat, highly polished facets with exceptionally sharp facet edges. Diamonds also possess an extremely high refractive index and fairly high dispersion. Taken together, these factors affect the overall appearance of a polished diamond and most diamantaires still rely upon skilled use of a loupe (magnifying glass) to identify diamonds 'by eye'.[31]
[edit] Natural history
The formation of natural diamond requires very specific conditions—exposure of carbon-bearing materials to high pressure, ranging approximately between 45 and 60 kilobars (4.5 and 6 GPa), but at a comparatively low temperature range between approximately 900–1300 °C. These conditions are met in two places on Earth; in the lithospheric mantle below relatively stable continental plates, and at the site of a meteorite strike.[32]
[edit] Formation in cratons
One face of an uncut octahedral diamond, showing trigons (of positive and negative relief) formed by natural chemical etchingThe conditions for diamond formation to happen in the lithospheric mantle occur at considerable depth corresponding to the requirements of temperature and pressure. These depths are estimated between 140 and 190 km though occasionally diamonds have crystallized at depths about 300 km as well.[33] The rate at which temperature changes with increasing depth into the Earth varies greatly in different parts of the Earth. In particular, under oceanic plates the temperature rises more quickly with depth, beyond the range required for diamond formation at the depth required. The correct combination of temperature and pressure is only found in the thick, ancient, and stable parts of continental plates where regions of lithosphere known as cratons exist. Long residence in the cratonic lithosphere allows diamond crystals to grow larger.[33]
The slightly misshapen octahedral shape of this rough diamond crystal in matrix is typical of the mineral. Its lustrous faces also indicate that this crystal is from a primary deposit.Through studies of carbon isotope ratios (similar to the methodology used in carbon dating, except with the stable isotopes C-12 and C-13), it has been shown that the carbon found in diamonds comes from both inorganic and organic sources. Some diamonds, known as harzburgitic, are formed from inorganic carbon originally found deep in the Earth's mantle. In contrast, eclogitic diamonds contain organic carbon from organic detritus that has been pushed down from the surface of the Earth's crust through subduction (see plate tectonics) before transforming into diamond. These two different source of carbon have measurably different 13C:12C ratios. Diamonds that have come to the Earth's surface are generally quite old, ranging from under 1 billion to 3.3 billion years old. This is 22% to 73% of the age of the Earth.[33]
Diamonds occur most often as euhedral or rounded octahedra and twinned octahedra known as macles. As diamond's crystal structure has a cubic arrangement of the atoms, they have many facets that belong to a cube, octahedron, rhombicosidodecahedron, tetrakis hexahedron or disdyakis dodecahedron. The crystals can have rounded off and unexpressive edges and can be elongated. Sometimes they are found grown together or form double "twinned" crystals at the surfaces of the octahedron. These different shapes and habits of some diamonds result from differing external circumstances. Diamonds (especially those with rounded crystal faces) are commonly found coated in nyf, an opaque gum-like skin.[34]
[edit] Formation in meteorite impact craters
Diamonds can also form under other naturally occurring high-pressure conditions. Very small diamonds of micrometer and nanometer sizes, known as microdiamonds or nanodiamonds respectively, have been found in meteorite impact craters. Such impact events create shock zones of high pressure and temperature suitable for diamond formation. Impact-type microdiamonds can be used as an indicator of ancient impact craters.[32]
[edit] Extraterrestrial formation
Not all diamonds found on Earth originated here. A type of diamond called carbonado that is found in South America and Africa may have been deposited there via an asteroid impact (not formed from the impact) about 3 billion years ago. These diamonds may have formed in the intrastellar environment, but as of 2008, there was no scientific consensus on how carbonado diamonds originated.[35][36]
Presolar grains in many meteorites found on Earth contain nanodiamonds of extraterrestrial origin, probably formed in supernovas. Scientific evidence indicates that white dwarf stars have a core of crystallized carbon and oxygen nuclei. The largest of these found in the universe so far, BPM 37093, is located 50 light-years (4.7×1014 km) away in the constellation Centaurus. A news release from the Harvard-Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics described the 2,500-mile (4,000 km)-wide stellar core as a diamond.[37] It was referred to as Lucy, after the Beatles' song "Lucy in the Sky With Diamonds".[17][38]
[edit] Surfacing
Schematic diagram of a volcanic pipeDiamond-bearing rock is brought close to the surface through deep-origin volcanic eruptions. The magma for such a volcano must originate at a depth where diamonds can be formed[33]—150 km (93 mi) or more (three times or more the depth of source magma for most volcanoes). This is a relatively rare occurrence. These typically small surface volcanic craters extend downward in formations known as volcanic pipes.[33] The pipes contain material that was transported toward the surface by volcanic action, but was not ejected before the volcanic activity ceased. During eruption these pipes are open to the surface, resulting in open circulation; many xenoliths of surface rock and even wood and fossils are found in volcanic pipes. Diamond-bearing volcanic pipes are closely related to the oldest, coolest regions of continental crust (cratons). This is because cratons are very thick, and their lithospheric mantle extends to great enough depth that diamonds are stable. Not all pipes contain diamonds, and even fewer contain enough diamonds to make mining economically viable.[33]
The magma in volcanic pipes is usually one of two characteristic types, which cool into igneous rock known as either kimberlite or lamproite.[33] The magma itself does not contain diamond; instead, it acts as an elevator that carries deep-formed rocks (xenoliths), minerals (xenocrysts), and fluids upward. These rocks are characteristically rich in magnesium-bearing olivine, pyroxene, and amphibole minerals[33] which are often altered to serpentine by heat and fluids during and after eruption. Certain indicator minerals typically occur within diamantiferous kimberlites and are used as mineralogical tracers by prospectors, who follow the indicator trail back to the volcanic pipe which may contain diamonds. These minerals are rich in chromium (Cr) or titanium (Ti), elements which impart bright colors to the minerals. The most common indicator minerals are chromium garnets (usually bright red chromium-pyrope, and occasionally green ugrandite-series garnets), eclogitic garnets, orange titanium-pyrope, red high-chromium spinels, dark chromite, bright green chromium-diopside, glassy green olivine, black picroilmenite, and magnetite. Kimberlite deposits are known as blue ground for the deeper serpentinized part of the deposits, or as yellow ground for the near surface smectite clay and carbonate weathered and oxidized portion.[33]
Once diamonds have been transported to the surface by magma in a volcanic pipe, they may erode out and be distributed over a large area. A volcanic pipe containing diamonds is known as a primary source of diamonds. Secondary sources of diamonds include all areas where a significant number of diamonds have been eroded out of their kimberlite or lamproite matrix, and accumulated because of water or wind action. These include alluvial deposits and deposits along existing and ancient shorelines, where loose diamonds tend to accumulate because of their size and density. Diamonds have also rarely been found in deposits left behind by glaciers (notably in Wisconsin and Indiana); in contrast to alluvial deposits, glacial deposits are minor and are therefore not viable commercial sources of diamond.[33]
[edit] Production
Diamond output in 2005See also: List of diamond mines
Approximately 130 million carats (26,000 kg (57,000 lb)) of diamonds are mined annually, with a total value of nearly US$9 billion, and about 100,000 kg (220,000 lb) are synthesized annually.[39]
Roughly 49% of diamonds originate from central and southern Africa, although significant sources of the mineral have been discovered in Canada, India, Russia, Brazil, and Australia.[40] They are mined from kimberlite and lamproite volcanic pipes, which can bring diamond crystals, originating from deep within the Earth where high pressures and temperatures enable them to form, to the surface. The mining and distribution of natural diamonds are subjects of frequent controversy such as concerns over the sale of blood diamonds or conflict diamonds by African paramilitary groups.[41] The diamond supply chain is controlled by a limited number of powerful businesses, and is also highly concentrated in a small number of locations around the world (see figure).
Only a very small fraction of the diamond ore consists of actual diamonds. The ore is crushed, during which care is required not to destroy larger diamonds, and then sorted by density. Today, diamonds are located in the diamond-rich density fraction with the help of X-ray fluorescence, after which the final sorting steps are done by hand. Before the use of X-rays became commonplace,[42] the separation was done with grease belts; diamonds have a stronger tendency to stick to grease than the other minerals in the ore.[20]
Historically diamonds were found only in alluvial deposits in southern India.[43] India led the world in diamond production from the time of their discovery in approximately the 9th century BC[4][44] to the mid-18th century AD, but the commercial potential of these sources had been exhausted by the late 18th century and at that time India was eclipsed by Brazil where the first non-Indian diamonds were found in 1725.[4]
Diamond extraction from primary deposits (kimberlites and lamproites) started in the 1870s after the discovery of the Diamond Fields in South Africa.[45] Production has increased over time and now an accumulated total of 4.5 billion carats have been mined since that date.[46] Twenty percent of that amount has been mined in the last five years, and during the last 10 years, nine new mines have started production; four more are waiting to be opened soon. Most of these mines are located in Canada, Zimbabwe, Angola, and one in Russia.[46]
In the U.S., diamonds have been found in Arkansas, Colorado, and Montana.[47][48] In 2004, the discovery of a microscopic diamond in the U.S. led to the January 2008 bulk-sampling of kimberlite pipes in a remote part of Montana.[48]
Today, most commercially viable diamond deposits are in Russia (mostly in Sakha Republic, for example Mir pipe and Udachnaya pipe), Botswana, Australia (Northern and Western Australia) and the Democratic Republic of Congo.[49] In 2005, Russia produced almost one-fifth of the global diamond output, reports the British Geological Survey. Australia boasts the richest diamantiferous pipe, with production from the Argyle diamond mine reaching peak levels of 42 metric tons per year in the 1990s.[47][50] There are also commercial deposits being actively mined in the Northwest Territories of Canada and Brazil.[40] Diamond prospectors continue to search the globe for diamond-bearing kimberlite and lamproite pipes.
[edit] Controversial sources
Main articles: Kimberley Process, Blood diamond, and Child labour in the diamond industry
In some of the more politically unstable central African and west African countries, revolutionary groups have taken control of diamond mines, using proceeds from diamond sales to finance their operations. Diamonds sold through this process are known as conflict diamonds or blood diamonds.[41] Major diamond trading corporations continue to fund and fuel these conflicts by doing business with armed groups. In response to public concerns that their diamond purchases were contributing to war and human rights abuses in central and western Africa, the United Nations, the diamond industry and diamond-trading nations introduced the Kimberley Process in 2002.[51] The Kimberley Process aims to ensure that conflict diamonds do not become intermixed with the diamonds not controlled by such rebel groups. This is done by requiring diamond-producing countries to provide proof that the money they make from selling the diamonds is not used to fund criminal or revolutionary activities. Although the Kimberley Process has been moderately successful in limiting the number of conflict diamonds entering the market, some still find their way in. Conflict diamonds constitute 2–3% of all diamonds traded.[52] Two major flaws still hinder the effectiveness of the Kimberley Process: (1) the relative ease of smuggling diamonds across African borders, and (2) the violent nature of diamond mining in nations that are not in a technical state of war and whose diamonds are therefore considered "clean".[51]
The Canadian Government has set up a body known as Canadian Diamond Code of Conduct[53] to help authenticate Canadian diamonds. This is a stringent tracking system of diamonds and helps protect the "conflict free" label of Canadian diamonds.[54]
[edit] Commercial markets
See also: Diamonds as an investment
A round brilliant cut diamond set in a ringThe diamond industry can be separated into two distinct categories: one dealing with gem-grade diamonds and another for industrial-grade diamonds. While a large trade in both types of diamonds exists, the two markets act in dramatically different ways.
[edit] Gemstones and their distribution
Main article: Diamond (gemstone)
A large trade in gem-grade diamonds exists. Unlike other commodities, such as most precious metals, there is a substantial mark-up in the retail sale of gem diamonds.[55] There is a well-established market for resale of polished diamonds (e.g. pawnbroking, auctions, second-hand jewelry stores, diamantaires, bourses, etc.). One hallmark of the trade in gem-quality diamonds is its remarkable concentration: wholesale trade and diamond cutting is limited to just a few locations; In 2003, 92% of the world's diamonds were cut and polished in Surat, India.[56] Other important centers of diamond cutting and trading are Antwerp, where the International Gemological Institute is based, London, New York City, Tel Aviv, and Amsterdam. A single company—De Beers—controls a significant proportion of the trade in diamonds.[57] They are based in Johannesburg, South Africa and London, England. One contributory factor is the geological nature of diamond deposits: several large primary kimberlite-pipe mines each account for significant portions of market share (such as the Jwaneng mine in Botswana, which is a single large pit operated by De Beers that can produce between 12.5 to 15 million carats of diamonds per year,[58]) whereas secondary alluvial diamond deposits tend to be fragmented amongst many different operators because they can be dispersed over many hundreds of square kilometers (e.g., alluvial deposits in Brazil).
The production and distribution of diamonds is largely consolidated in the hands of a few key players, and concentrated in traditional diamond trading centers, the most important being Antwerp, where 80% of all rough diamonds, 50% of all cut diamonds and more than 50% of all rough, cut and industrial diamonds combined are handled.[59] This makes Antwerp a de facto "world diamond capital". Another important diamond center is New York City, where almost 80% of the world's diamonds are sold, including auction sales.[59] The DeBeers company, as the world's largest diamond miner holds a dominant position in the industry, and has done so since soon after its founding in 1888 by the British imperialist Cecil Rhodes. De Beers owns or controls a significant portion of the world's rough diamond production facilities (mines) and distribution channels for gem-quality diamonds. The Diamond Trading Company (DTC) is a subsidiary of De Beers and markets rough diamonds from De Beers-operated mines. De Beers and its subsidiaries own mines that produce some 40% of annual world diamond production. For most of the 20th century over 80% of the world's rough diamonds passed through De Beers,[60] but in the period 2001–2009 the figure has decreased to around 45%.[61] De Beers sold off the vast majority of its diamond stockpile in the late 1990s – early 2000s[62] and the remainder largely represents working stock (diamonds that are being sorted before sale).[63] This was well documented in the press[64] but remains little known to the general public.
As a part of reducing its influence, De Beers withdrew from purchasing diamonds on the open market in 1999 and ceased, at the end of 2008, purchasing Russian diamonds mined by the largest Russian diamond company Alrosa.[65] Alrosa had to suspend their sales in October 2008 due to the global energy crisis and was expected to resume them in late 2009.[66] Apart from Alrosa, other important diamond mining companies include BHP Billiton, which is the world's largest mining company;[67] Rio Tinto Group, the owner of Argyle (100%), Diavik (60%), and Murowa (78%) diamond mines;[68] and Petra Diamonds, the owner of several major diamond mines in Africa.
Further down the supply chain, members of The World Federation of Diamond Bourses (WFDB) act as a medium for wholesale diamond exchange, trading both polished and rough diamonds. The WFDB consists of independent diamond bourses in major cutting centers such as Tel Aviv, Antwerp, Johannesburg and other cities across the USA, Europe and Asia.[20] In 2000, the WFDB and The International Diamond Manufacturers Association established the World Diamond Council to prevent the trading of diamonds used to fund war and inhumane acts. WFDB's additional activities include sponsoring the World Diamond Congress every two years, as well as the establishment of the International Diamond Council (IDC) to oversee diamond grading.
Once purchased by Sightholders (which is a trademark term referring to the companies that have a three-year supply contract with DTC), diamonds are cut and polished in preparation for sale as gemstones ('industrial' stones are regarded as a by-product of the gemstone market; they are used for abrasives).[69] The cutting and polishing of rough diamonds is a specialized skill that is concentrated in a limited number of locations worldwide.[69] Traditional diamond cutting centers are Antwerp, Amsterdam, Johannesburg, New York City, and Tel Aviv. Recently, diamond cutting centers have been established in China, India, Thailand, Namibia and Botswana.[69] Cutting centers with lower cost of labor, notably Surat in Gujarat, India, handle a larger number of smaller carat diamonds, while smaller quantities of larger or more valuable diamonds are more likely to be handled in Europe or North America. The recent expansion of this industry in India, employing low cost labor, has allowed smaller diamonds to be prepared as gems in greater quantities than was previously economically feasible.[59]
Diamonds which have been prepared as gemstones are sold on diamond exchanges called bourses. There are 26 registered diamond bourses in the world.[70] Bourses are the final tightly controlled step in the diamond supply chain; wholesalers and even retailers are able to buy relatively small lots of diamonds at the bourses, after which they are prepared for final sale to the consumer. Diamonds can be sold already set in jewelry, or sold unset ("loose"). According to the Rio Tinto Group, in 2002 the diamonds produced and released to the market were valued at US$9 billion as rough diamonds, US$14 billion after being cut and polished, US$28 billion in wholesale diamond jewelry, and US$57 billion in retail sales.[71]
[edit] Marketing
The image of diamond as a valuable commodity has been preserved through clever marketing campaigns. In particular, the De Beers diamond advertising campaign is acknowledged as one of the most successful and innovative campaigns in history. N. W. Ayer & Son, the advertising firm retained by De Beers in the mid-20th century, succeeded in reviving the American diamond market and opened up new markets, even in countries where no diamond tradition had existed before. N. W. Ayer's multifaceted marketing campaign included product placement, advertising the diamond itself rather than the De Beers brand, and building associations with celebrities and royalty. This coordinated campaign has lasted decades and continues today; it is perhaps best captured by the slogan "a diamond is forever".[7] It should be noted however, that graphite is the most stable allotrope of carbon, and as such diamond should in theory eventually become graphite.
Another example of successful diamond marketing is brown Australian diamonds. Brown-colored diamonds have always constituted a significant part of the diamond production, but were considered worthless for jewelry; they were not even assessed on the diamond color scale, and were predominantly used for industrial purposes. The attitude has changed drastically after the development of Argyle diamond mine in Australia in 1986. As a result of an aggressive marketing campaign, brown diamonds have become acceptable gems.[72][73] The change was mostly due to the numbers: the Argyle mine, with its 35 million carats (7,000 kg) of diamonds per year, makes about one-third of global production of natural diamonds;[74] 80% of Argyle diamonds are brown.[75]
[edit] Cutting
Main articles: Diamond cutting and Diamond cut
The Darya-I-Nur Diamond—an example of unusual diamond cut and jewelry arrangementThe mined rough diamonds are converted into gems through a multi-step process called "cutting". Diamonds are extremely hard, but also brittle and can be split up by a single blow. Therefore, diamond cutting is traditionally considered as a delicate procedure requiring skills, scientific knowledge, tools and experience. Its final goal is to produce a faceted jewel where the specific angles between the facets would optimize the diamond luster, that is dispersion of white light, whereas the number and area of facets would determine the weight of the final product. The weight reduction upon cutting is significant and can be of the order of 50%.[42] Several possible shapes are considered, but the final decision is often determined not only by scientific, but also practical considerations. For example the diamond might be intended for display or for wear, in a ring or a necklace, singled or surrounded by other gems of certain color and shape.[76]
The most time-consuming part of the cutting is the preliminary analysis of the rough stone. It needs to address a large number of issues, bears much responsibility, and therefore can last years in case of unique diamonds. The following issues are considered:
The hardness of diamond and its ability to cleave strongly depend on the crystal orientation. Therefore, the crystallographic structure of the diamond to be cut is analyzed using X-ray diffraction in order to choose the optimal cutting directions.
Most diamonds contain visible non-diamond inclusions and crystal flaws. The cutter has to decide which flaws are to be removed by the cutting and which could be kept.
The diamond can be split by a single, well calculated blow of a hammer to a pointed tool, which is quick, but risky. Alternatively, it can be cut with a diamond saw, which is a more reliable but tedious procedure.[76][77]
After initial cutting, the diamond is shaped in numerous stages of polishing. Unlike cutting, which is a responsible but quick operation, polishing removes material by gradual erosion and is extremely time consuming. The associated technique is well developed; it is considered as a routine and can be performed by technicians.[78] After polishing, the diamond is reexamined for possible flaws, either remaining or induced by the process. Those flaws are concealed through various diamond enhancement techniques, such as repolishing, crack filling, or clever arrangement of the stone in the jewelry. Remaining non-diamond inclusions are removed through laser drilling and filling of the voids produced.[14]
[edit] Industrial uses
A scalpel with synthetic diamond blade
Close-up photograph of an angle grinder blade with tiny diamonds shown embedded in the metalThe market for industrial-grade diamonds operates much differently from its gem-grade counterpart. Industrial diamonds are valued mostly for their hardness and heat conductivity, making many of the gemological characteristics of diamonds, such as clarity and color, irrelevant for most applications. This helps explain why 80% of mined diamonds (equal to about 135 million carats or 27 metric tons annually), unsuitable for use as gemstones, are destined for industrial use. In addition to mined diamonds, synthetic diamonds found industrial applications almost immediately after their invention in the 1950s; another 570 million carats (114 tons) of synthetic diamond is produced annually for industrial use. Approximately 90% of diamond grinding grit is currently of synthetic origin.[40]
The boundary between gem-quality diamonds and industrial diamonds is poorly defined and partly depends on market conditions (for example, if demand for polished diamonds is high, some suitable stones will be polished into low-quality or small gemstones rather than being sold for industrial use). Within the category of industrial diamonds, there is a sub-category comprising the lowest-quality, mostly opaque stones, which are known as bort.[79]
Industrial use of diamonds has historically been associated with their hardness; this property makes diamond the ideal material for cutting and grinding tools. As the hardest known naturally occurring material, diamond can be used to polish, cut, or wear away any material, including other diamonds. Common industrial adaptations of this ability include diamond-tipped drill bits and saws, and the use of diamond powder as an abrasive. Less expensive industrial-grade diamonds, known as bort, with more flaws and poorer color than gems, are used for such purposes.[80] Diamond is not suitable for machining ferrous alloys at high speeds, as carbon is soluble in iron at the high temperatures created by high-speed machining, leading to greatly increased wear on diamond tools compared to alternatives.[81]
Specialized applications include use in laboratories as containment for high pressure experiments (see diamond anvil cell), high-performance bearings, and limited use in specialized windows.[79] With the continuing advances being made in the production of synthetic diamonds, future applications are becoming feasible. Garnering much excitement is the possible use of diamond as a semiconductor suitable to build microchips, or the use of diamond as a heat sink[82] in electronics.
[edit] Synthetics, simulants, and enhancements
[edit] Synthetics
Main article: Synthetic diamond
Synthetic diamonds of various colors grown by the high-pressure high-temperature techniqueSynthetic diamonds are diamonds manufactured in a laboratory, as opposed to natural diamonds which form naturally within the Earth. The gemological and industrial uses of diamond have created a large demand for rough stones. This demand has been satisfied in large part by synthetic diamonds, which have been manufactured by various processes for more than half a century. However, in recent years it has become possible to produce gem-quality synthetic diamonds of significant size.[33]
The majority of commercially available synthetic diamonds are yellow and are produced by so called High Pressure High Temperature (HPHT) processes.[83] The yellow color is caused by nitrogen impurities. Other colors may also be reproduced such as blue, green or pink, which are a result of the addition of boron or from irradiation after synthesis.[84]
Colorless gem cut from diamond grown by chemical vapor depositionAnother popular method of growing synthetic diamond is chemical vapor deposition (CVD). The growth occurs under low pressure (below atmospheric pressure). It involves feeding a mixture of gases (typically 1 to 99 methane to hydrogen) into a chamber and splitting them to chemically active radicals in a plasma ignited by microwaves, hot filament, arc discharge, welding torch or laser.[85] This method is mostly used for coatings, but can also produce single crystals several millimeters in size (see picture).[39]
At present, the annual production of gem quality synthetic diamonds is only a few thousand carats, whereas the total production of natural diamonds is around 120 million carats. Despite this fact, a purchaser is more likely to encounter a synthetic when looking for a fancy-colored diamond because nearly all synthetic diamonds are fancy-colored, while only 0.01% of natural diamonds are.[86]
[edit] Simulants
Main article: Diamond simulant
Gem-cut synthetic silicon carbideA diamond simulant is defined as a non-diamond material that is used to simulate the appearance of a diamond. Diamond-simulant gems are often referred to as diamante. The most familiar diamond simulant to most consumers is cubic zirconia. The popular gemstone moissanite (silicon carbide) is often treated as a diamond simulant, although it is a gemstone in its own right. While moissanite looks similar to diamond, its main disadvantage as a diamond simulant is that cubic zirconia is far cheaper and arguably equally convincing. Both cubic zirconia and moissanite are produced synthetically.[87]
[edit] Enhancements
Main article: Diamond enhancement
Diamond enhancements are specific treatments performed on natural or synthetic diamonds (usually those already cut and polished into a gem), which are designed to better the gemological characteristics of the stone in one or more ways. These include laser drilling to remove inclusions, application of sealants to fill cracks, treatments to improve a white diamond's color grade, and treatments to give fancy color to a white diamond.[88]
Coatings are increasingly used to give a diamond simulant such as cubic zirconia a more "diamond-like" appearance. One such substance is diamond-like carbon—an amorphous carbonaceous material that has some physical properties similar to those of the diamond. Advertising suggests that such a coating would transfer some of these diamond-like properties to the coated stone, hence enhancing the diamond simulant. Techniques such as Raman spectroscopy should easily identify such a treatment.[89]
[edit] Identification
Early diamond identification tests included a scratch test relying on the superior hardness of diamond. This test is destructive, as a diamond can scratch diamond, and is rarely used nowadays. Instead, diamond identification relies on its superior thermal conductivity. Electronic thermal probes are widely used in the gemological centers to separate diamonds from their imitations. These probes consist of a pair of battery-powered thermistors mounted in a fine copper tip. One thermistor functions as a heating device while the other measures the temperature of the copper tip: if the stone being tested is a diamond, it will conduct the tip's thermal energy rapidly enough to produce a measurable temperature drop. This test takes about 2–3 seconds.[90]
Whereas the thermal probe can separate diamonds from most of their simulants, distinguishing between various types of diamond, for example synthetic or natural, irradiated or non-irradiated, etc., requires more advanced, optical techniques. Those techniques are also used for some diamonds simulants, such as silicon carbide, which pass the thermal conductivity test. Optical techniques can distinguish between natural diamonds and synthetic diamonds. They can also identify the vast majority of treated natural diamonds.[91] "Perfect" crystals (at the atomic lattice level) have never been found, so both natural and synthetic diamonds always possess characteristic imperfections, arising from the circumstances of their crystal growth, that allow them to be distinguished from each other.[92]
Laboratories use techniques such as spectroscopy, microscopy and luminescence under shortwave ultraviolet light to determine a diamond's origin.[91] They also use specially made machines to aid them in the identification process. Two screening machines are the DiamondSure and the DiamondView, both produced by the DTC and marketed by the GIA.[93]
Several methods for identifying synthetic diamonds can be performed, depending on the method of production and the color of the diamond. CVD diamonds can usually be identified by an orange fluorescence. D-J colored diamonds can be screened through the Swiss Gemmological Institute's[94] Diamond Spotter. Stones in the D-Z color range can be examined through the DiamondSure UV/visible spectrometer, a tool developed by De Beers.[92] Similarly, natural diamonds usually have minor imperfections and flaws, such as inclusions of foreign material, that are not seen in synthetic diamonds
Loonie Rises to Parity on Outlook for Increased Interest Rates
The Canadian dollar suddenly jumped today, reaching the parity with its U.S. counterpart, as the signs of the expanding nation’s economic growth and the widening inflation may encourage the central bank’s policy makers to raise the interest rates.
The Bank of Canada was keeping the interest rates at the same level since April 2009 and has pledged to keep the target rate for overnight loans between banks at 0.25 percent unchanged through June. The dropping of this pledge signals that the interest rates may jump by June, the good sign for the Canada’s economy and its currency in the near term.
The Governor Mark Carney stated:
With recent improvements in the economic outlook, the need for such extraordinary policy is now passing, and it is appropriate to begin to lessen the degree of monetary stimulus. The extent and timing will depend on the outlook for economic activity and inflation.
USD/CAD traded near 0.9984 as of 17:17 GMT today after opening at 1.0142. EUR/CAD traded at about 1.3414 after it opened at 1.3685.
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The Bank of Canada was keeping the interest rates at the same level since April 2009 and has pledged to keep the target rate for overnight loans between banks at 0.25 percent unchanged through June. The dropping of this pledge signals that the interest rates may jump by June, the good sign for the Canada’s economy and its currency in the near term.
The Governor Mark Carney stated:
With recent improvements in the economic outlook, the need for such extraordinary policy is now passing, and it is appropriate to begin to lessen the degree of monetary stimulus. The extent and timing will depend on the outlook for economic activity and inflation.
USD/CAD traded near 0.9984 as of 17:17 GMT today after opening at 1.0142. EUR/CAD traded at about 1.3414 after it opened at 1.3685.
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Australian Dollar Boosted by Concern About Inflation
The Australian dollar gained today after the Reserve Bank of Australia announced its plans to raise the interest rates, partially because of concern that the inflation will be spurred by the mining boom.
“The fact that the prospective rise in the terms of trade was now likely to be noticeably stronger than had been expected was a factor suggesting that it might be prudent not to delay”, said the RBA’s officials in the minutes of their meeting. The bank’s officials may increase the interest rates in May in case they’ll find the inflation level troublesome.
The investors, looking for the higher-yielding assets, are attracted to Australia by its high benchmark interest rates, which are at 4.25 percent level, compared with 0.1 percent in Japan and as low as zero in the U.S. Yet they may be turned away in case the volatility in the markets grows as the currency market moves may erase profits.
AUD/USD rose to about 0.9320 as of 21:15 GMT today up from its opening level of 0.9237. EUR/AUD dropped to 1.4414 after opening at 1.4597.
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“The fact that the prospective rise in the terms of trade was now likely to be noticeably stronger than had been expected was a factor suggesting that it might be prudent not to delay”, said the RBA’s officials in the minutes of their meeting. The bank’s officials may increase the interest rates in May in case they’ll find the inflation level troublesome.
The investors, looking for the higher-yielding assets, are attracted to Australia by its high benchmark interest rates, which are at 4.25 percent level, compared with 0.1 percent in Japan and as low as zero in the U.S. Yet they may be turned away in case the volatility in the markets grows as the currency market moves may erase profits.
AUD/USD rose to about 0.9320 as of 21:15 GMT today up from its opening level of 0.9237. EUR/AUD dropped to 1.4414 after opening at 1.4597.
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Demand for Dollar as Safe Currency Declines
The U.S. dollar dropped today after the demand for the currency as the safe haven was diminished today by the rising equities, boosted by the higher than expected company earnings.
The Apple Inc. reported that its quarterly profit almost doubled, causing its shares to jump as much as 8.3 percent. The increasing confidence prompts the investors to seek the higher-yielding currencies, forgoing the safe ones. This trend also affected the Japanese yen.
GBP/USD traded at about 1.5415 today as of 9:34 GMT up from the opening price of 1.5356. USD/CHF traded at 1.0663.
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The Apple Inc. reported that its quarterly profit almost doubled, causing its shares to jump as much as 8.3 percent. The increasing confidence prompts the investors to seek the higher-yielding currencies, forgoing the safe ones. This trend also affected the Japanese yen.
GBP/USD traded at about 1.5415 today as of 9:34 GMT up from the opening price of 1.5356. USD/CHF traded at 1.0663.
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Decreasing Jobless Claims May Boost Pound
The Great Britain pound advanced today against the other major currencies and may continue its rise further as the report showed that the number of the jobless benefits claimed is dwindling.
The number of the unemployment claims decreased in March by 10,000 from the previous month, when it fell by 32,300. The pound was bolstered by the government report that the inflation grows with greater than predicted pace. The higher than expected earnings of the Apple Inc. and the Elpida Memory Inc. boosted the stocks, damping the demand for the safer currencies and adding to the sterling’s strength.
EUR/GBP dropped to 0.8704 as of 10:23 GMT today from its opening price of 0.8745. GBP/JPY rose to about 143.83 from its opening level of 143.14
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The number of the unemployment claims decreased in March by 10,000 from the previous month, when it fell by 32,300. The pound was bolstered by the government report that the inflation grows with greater than predicted pace. The higher than expected earnings of the Apple Inc. and the Elpida Memory Inc. boosted the stocks, damping the demand for the safer currencies and adding to the sterling’s strength.
EUR/GBP dropped to 0.8704 as of 10:23 GMT today from its opening price of 0.8745. GBP/JPY rose to about 143.83 from its opening level of 143.14
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Concern for Budget Deficit Undermines Euro’s Strength
The euro continues its decline on concern that the rescue package, provided to Greece by the European Union government and which is valued as much as 45 billion euro, won’t be enough to deal with the nation’s debt.
The Greece’s budget shortfall is 12.9 percent of gross domestic product, which is four times the EU limit. The cost of insuring against the default on Greece’s debt increased today. At present time it looks like the bailout plan wasn’t been able to assuage the long-term fears of the default and, as a result, the investors and the trader are looking for the alternatives to the euro.
The concern about the threat of the budget shortfall may spread across the Euro-zone, further weakening the euro. The budget deficits may hit the European countries as they have spent billions on the stimulus programs.
EUR/USD dropped to 1.3382 today as of 16:00 GMT down from its opening level of 1.3433. EUR/JPY fell to about 124.77 after it opened at 125.21. EUR/GBP traded near 0.8689.
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The Greece’s budget shortfall is 12.9 percent of gross domestic product, which is four times the EU limit. The cost of insuring against the default on Greece’s debt increased today. At present time it looks like the bailout plan wasn’t been able to assuage the long-term fears of the default and, as a result, the investors and the trader are looking for the alternatives to the euro.
The concern about the threat of the budget shortfall may spread across the Euro-zone, further weakening the euro. The budget deficits may hit the European countries as they have spent billions on the stimulus programs.
EUR/USD dropped to 1.3382 today as of 16:00 GMT down from its opening level of 1.3433. EUR/JPY fell to about 124.77 after it opened at 125.21. EUR/GBP traded near 0.8689.
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Canadian Dollar Falls vs. Greenback, but Remains Near Parity
The Canadian dollar retreated against its U.S. counterpart after reaching its highest level since June 2008 today, but remains near the parity level, supported by the speculation that the Bank of Canada will increase the interest rates faster than the Federal Reserve.
The analysts predict that the Bank of Canada will increase the benchmark overnight rate to 1.25 percent by the end of the year, while the U.S. Federal Reserve will increase its benchmark rate to 0.75 percent, from the current level of 0–0.25 percent, by that time. Jim Flaherty, the Canada’s Minister of Finance, said that the Canadian exporters have become more competitive and can handle a stronger currency. The International Monetary Fund forecast today that the Canada’s economy will grow 3.1 percent in 2010 and 3.2 percent in the following year.
The experts think that the Loonie will stay near its current level. But some analysts believe that, despite the favorable fundamentals, the bullish trend was exaggerated and the currency’s appreciation was too large and too fast.
USD/CAD traded near 0.9993 as of 20:47 GMT today after it opened at 0.9985. EUR/CAD traded at about 1.3383 down from its opening rate of 1.3414.
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The analysts predict that the Bank of Canada will increase the benchmark overnight rate to 1.25 percent by the end of the year, while the U.S. Federal Reserve will increase its benchmark rate to 0.75 percent, from the current level of 0–0.25 percent, by that time. Jim Flaherty, the Canada’s Minister of Finance, said that the Canadian exporters have become more competitive and can handle a stronger currency. The International Monetary Fund forecast today that the Canada’s economy will grow 3.1 percent in 2010 and 3.2 percent in the following year.
The experts think that the Loonie will stay near its current level. But some analysts believe that, despite the favorable fundamentals, the bullish trend was exaggerated and the currency’s appreciation was too large and too fast.
USD/CAD traded near 0.9993 as of 20:47 GMT today after it opened at 0.9985. EUR/CAD traded at about 1.3383 down from its opening rate of 1.3414.
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Yen Advances Against Euro on Higher Risk Aversion Sentiment
The Japanese yen gained today as the demand for the Japanese currency as the safe haven increased, boosted by the speculation that the U.S. President will implement the new financial industry regulations.
According to Barak Obama’s spokesman the President will aim at “risky decisions” taken on Wall Street. The White House press secretary Robert Gibbs said: “Financial reform is something that is born out of an economic collapse that started on Wall Street and spread to Main Street America.” The fears of the possible turmoil in the banking sector caused the investor’s sentiment to lean toward a risk aversion, which may result in the higher demand for the yen.
EUR/JPY dropped to 124.30 today as of 9:33 GMT after opening at 124.76.
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According to Barak Obama’s spokesman the President will aim at “risky decisions” taken on Wall Street. The White House press secretary Robert Gibbs said: “Financial reform is something that is born out of an economic collapse that started on Wall Street and spread to Main Street America.” The fears of the possible turmoil in the banking sector caused the investor’s sentiment to lean toward a risk aversion, which may result in the higher demand for the yen.
EUR/JPY dropped to 124.30 today as of 9:33 GMT after opening at 124.76.
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Pound Rises vs. Euro with Increase of Mortgage Approvals
The Great Britain pound advanced against the euro today after the Bank of England reported about the higher than expected increase of the mortgage approvals in the previous month.
The number of loans for the house purchases rose to 52,000 in the previous month, from 48,000 in February. The number of Britons willing to make a first time purchase of a property has dropped in the previous month to the lowest level in almost two decades, making the government to scrap the tax on the house purchases if the purchase performed for a first-time and valued less than 250,000 pounds.
EUR/GBP traded at about 0.8668 as of 11:43 GMT today down from the opening price of 0.8688.
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The number of loans for the house purchases rose to 52,000 in the previous month, from 48,000 in February. The number of Britons willing to make a first time purchase of a property has dropped in the previous month to the lowest level in almost two decades, making the government to scrap the tax on the house purchases if the purchase performed for a first-time and valued less than 250,000 pounds.
EUR/GBP traded at about 0.8668 as of 11:43 GMT today down from the opening price of 0.8688.
If you want to comment on the Great Britain pound’s recent action or have any questions regarding this currency, please, feel free to reply below
Fear of Budget Shortage Strangles Euro
The euro sank today to almost the lowest level in a year against the U.S. dollar as the possibility that Greece will be forced to activate the rescue package increased after the announcement that the Greece’s deficit the last year was higher than previously estimated.
After the meeting of the European leaders with their Greek counterparts, which was held to discuss the proposed bailout, the report showed that the nation’s budget shortage was 13.6 percent of gross domestic product in 2009, higher than previously estimated. The Greece’s government may delay or cut payments to bond investors during the negotiations about the terms of the bailout.
The growing concern about the Greece’s budget deficit and worries that other European countries will experience the same problem drives the euro these days. Until the European Union’s government find the way to lessen these fears the euro will remain inherently weak.
EUR/USD traded near 1.3298 as of 16:07 GMT today, falling from its opening level of 1.3389. EUR/JPY traded at 123.77 after it opened at 124.76.
If you want to comment on the Euro’s recent action or have any questions regarding this currency, please, feel free to reply below
After the meeting of the European leaders with their Greek counterparts, which was held to discuss the proposed bailout, the report showed that the nation’s budget shortage was 13.6 percent of gross domestic product in 2009, higher than previously estimated. The Greece’s government may delay or cut payments to bond investors during the negotiations about the terms of the bailout.
The growing concern about the Greece’s budget deficit and worries that other European countries will experience the same problem drives the euro these days. Until the European Union’s government find the way to lessen these fears the euro will remain inherently weak.
EUR/USD traded near 1.3298 as of 16:07 GMT today, falling from its opening level of 1.3389. EUR/JPY traded at 123.77 after it opened at 124.76.
If you want to comment on the Euro’s recent action or have any questions regarding this currency, please, feel free to reply below
forex news
Loonie Resumed its Rise Against U.S. Dollar
The Canadian dollar resumed today the rise against its U.S. counterpart, after it dropped yesterday, on speculation that the central bank will increase the interest rates, signaling about the waning need for stimulus measures.
The Bank of Canada reported that the economic growth will expand by 5.8 percent through the first quarter, while inflation will rise to 2 percent in the third quarter of 2010 and remain near that level until the end of 2012. Mark Carney, the Governor of the Bank of Canada, explained that he dropped the conditional pledge to hold the rates at the record low level till July as it is no longer necessary.
The evidences that the central bank will raise the interest rates are becoming stronger. The analysts say that the Canadian currency has hard time to remain at parity at present, but in the long run it should outperform the greenback.
USD/CAD traded today at about 0.9989 as of 18:24 GMT after opening at 0.9995 and reaching its daily low of 0.9958. EUR/CAD traded near 1.3301 after opening at 1.3385.
If you want to comment on the Canadian dollar’s recent action or have any questions regarding this currency, please, feel free to
The Canadian dollar resumed today the rise against its U.S. counterpart, after it dropped yesterday, on speculation that the central bank will increase the interest rates, signaling about the waning need for stimulus measures.
The Bank of Canada reported that the economic growth will expand by 5.8 percent through the first quarter, while inflation will rise to 2 percent in the third quarter of 2010 and remain near that level until the end of 2012. Mark Carney, the Governor of the Bank of Canada, explained that he dropped the conditional pledge to hold the rates at the record low level till July as it is no longer necessary.
The evidences that the central bank will raise the interest rates are becoming stronger. The analysts say that the Canadian currency has hard time to remain at parity at present, but in the long run it should outperform the greenback.
USD/CAD traded today at about 0.9989 as of 18:24 GMT after opening at 0.9995 and reaching its daily low of 0.9958. EUR/CAD traded near 1.3301 after opening at 1.3385.
If you want to comment on the Canadian dollar’s recent action or have any questions regarding this currency, please, feel free to
الخميس، 22 أبريل 2010
Tourism in India
Tourism is the largest service industry in India, with a contribution of 6.23% to the national GDP and 8.78% of the total employment in India. India witnesses more than 5 million annual foreign tourist arrivals and 562 million domestic tourism visits.[1] The tourism industry in India generated about US$100 billion in 2008 and that is expected to increase to US$275.5 billion by 2018 at a 9.4% annual growth rate.[2] The Ministry of Tourism is the nodal agency for the development and promotion of tourism in India and maintains the "Incredible India" campaign.
According to World Travel and Tourism Council, India will be a tourism hotspot from 2009-2018,[3] having the highest 10-year growth potential.[4] The Travel & Tourism Competitiveness Report 2007 ranked tourism in India 6th in terms of price competitiveness and 39th in terms of safety and security.[5] Despite short- and medium-term setbacks, such as shortage of hotel rooms,[6] tourism revenues are expected to surge by 42% from 2007 to 2017.[7]
India has a growing medical tourism sector. The 2010 Commonwealth Games in Delhi are expected to significantly boost tourism in India.
Andhra Pradesh
Further information: Tourist attractions in Hyderabad
Charminar in HyderabadAndhra Pradesh has a rich cultural heritage and a variety of tourist attractions. The state of Andhra Pradesh comprises scenic hills, forests, beaches and temples. Also known as The City of Nizams and The City of Pearls, Hyderabad is today one of the most developed cities in the country and a modern hub of information technology, ITES, and biotechnology. Hyderabad is known for its rich history, culture and architecture representing its unique character as a meeting point for North and South India, and also its multilingual culture, both geographically and culturally.
Andhra Pradesh is the home of many religious pilgrim centres. Tirupati, the abode of Lord Venkateswara, is the richest and most visited religious center (of any faith) in the world. Srisailam, the abode of Sri Mallikarjuna, is one of twelve Jyothirlingalu in India, Amaravati's Siva temple is one of the Pancharamams, and Yadagirigutta, the abode of an avatara of Vishnu, Sri Lakshmi Narasimha. The Ramappa temple and Thousand Pillars temple in Warangal are famous for some fine temple carvings. The state has numerous Buddhist centres at Amaravati, Nagarjuna Konda, Bhattiprolu, Ghantasala, Nelakondapalli, Dhulikatta, Bavikonda, Thotlakonda, Shalihundam, Pavuralakonda, Sankaram, Phanigiri and Kolanpaka.
The golden beaches at Visakhapatnam, the one-million-year old limestone caves at Borra, picturesque Araku Valley, hill resorts of Horsley Hills, river Godavari racing through a narrow gorge at Papi Kondalu, waterfalls at Ettipotala, Kuntala and rich bio-diversity at Talakona, are some of the natural attractions of the state. Visakhapatnam is home to many tourist attactions such as the INS Karasura Submarine museum (The only one of its kind in India), Yarada Beach, Araku Valley, VUDA Park, Indira Gandhi Zoological Gardens. The weather in Andhra Pradesh is mostly tropical and the best time to visit is in November through to January. The monsoon season commences in June and ends in September, so travel would not be advisable during this period.
See Also: Andhra Pradesh Official Tourism Website
[edit] Assam
Main article: Tourism in Assam
Great Indian One-Horned Rhinoceros in Kaziranga National Park.Assam is the central state in the North-East Region of India and serves as the gateway to the rest of the Seven Sister States. Assam boasts of famous wildlife preserves – the Kaziranga National Park (pictured) and the Manas National Park, the largest river island Majuli, and tea-estates dating back to time of British Raj. The weather is mostly sub-tropical. Assam experiences the Indian monsoon and has one of the highest forest densities in India. The winter months (October to April) are the best time to visit.
Assam has a rich cultural heritage going back to the Ahom Kingdom which governed the region for many centuries before the British occupation. Other notable features include the Brahmaputra River, the mystery of the bird suicides in Jatinga, numerous temples including Kamakhya of Tantric sect, ruins of palaces, etc. Guwahati, the capital city of Assam, boasts many bazaars, temples, and wildlife sanctuaries.
See Also: Assam Official Tourism Website
[edit] Bihar
Main article: Tourism in Bihar
Mahabodhi Temple is a UNESCO World Heritage SiteBihar is one of the oldest continuously inhabited places in the world with history of 3000 years. The rich culture and heritage of Bihar is evident from the innumerable ancient monuments that are dotted all over this state in eastern India. This is the Place of Aryabhatta, Great Ashoka, Chanakya and many more.
Bihar is one of the most sacred places of various religions such as Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism, Sikhism & Islam. Famous Attraction includes Mahabodhi Temple, a Buddhist shrine and UNESCO World Heritage Site is also situated in Bihar, Barabar Caves the oldest rockcut caves in India, Khuda Bakhsh Oriental Library the Oldest Library of India.
[edit] Delhi
Lotus TempleMain article: Tourism in Delhi
Delhi is the capital city of India. A fine blend of old and new, ancient and modern, Delhi is a melting pot of cultures, religions. Delhi has been the capital of numerous empires that ruled India, making it rich in history. The rulers left behind their trademark architectural styles. Delhi currently has many renowned historic monuments and landmarks such as the Tughlaqabad fort, Qutub Minar, Purana Quila, Lodhi Gardens, Jama Masjid, Humayun's tomb, Red Fort, and Safdarjung's Tomb. Modern monuments include Jantar Mantar, India Gate, Rashtrapati Bhavan, Laxminarayan Temple, Lotus temple and Akshardham Temple.
New Delhi is famous for its British colonial architecture, wide roads, and tree-lined boulevards. Delhi is home to numerous political landmarks, national museums, Islamic shrines, Hindu temples, green parks, and trendy malls.
See Also: Delhi Tourism Official Website
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[edit] Goa
Goa is noted for its resorts and beaches.Main article: Tourism in Goa
Goa is one of the most famous tourist destinations in India. A former colony of Portugal, Goa is famous for its excellent beaches, Portuguese churches, Hindu temples, and wildlife sanctuaries. The Basilica of Bom Jesus, Mangueshi Temple, Dudhsagar Falls, and Shantadurga are famous attractions in Goa. Recently a Wax Museum (Wax World) has also opened in Old Goa housing a number of wax personalities of Indian history, culture and heritage.
The Goa Carnival is a world famous event, with colorful masks and floats, drums and reverberating music, and dance performances. The celebrations run three days culminating in a carnival parade on fat Tuesday.
See Also: Goa Tourism Official Website
[edit] Himachal Pradesh
The Himalayan landscape of Himachal Pradesh is ideal for out-door activities such as skiingHimachal Pradesh is famous for its Himalayan landscapes and popular hill-stations. Many outdoor activities such as rock climbing, mountain biking, paragliding, ice-skating, and heli-skiing are popular tourist attractions in Himachal Pradesh.[8]
Shimla, the state capital, is very popular among tourists. The Kalka-Shimla Railway is a Mountain railway which is a UNESCO World Heritage Site. Shimla is also a famous skiing attraction in India. Other popular hill stations include Manali and Kasauli.
Dharamshala, home of the Dalai Lama, is known for its Tibetan monasteries and Buddhist temples. Many trekking expeditions also begin here.
See Also Himachal Pradesh Official Website
[edit] Jammu and Kashmir
Main article: Tourism in Jammu and Kashmir
Jammu & Kashmir is known for its scenic landscapeJammu and Kashmir is the northernmost state of India. Jammu is noted for its scenic landscape, ancient temples, Hindu shrines, castles, gardens, and forts. The Hindu holy shrines of Amarnath and Vaishno Devi attract tens of thousands of Hindu devotees every year. Jammu's natural landscape has made it one of the popular destinations for adventure tourism in South Asia. Jammu's historic monuments feature a unique blend of Islamic and Hindu architecture styles.
Tourism forms an integral part of the Kashmiri economy. Often dubbed "Paradise on Earth", Kashmir's mountainous landscape has attracted tourists for centuries. Notable places are Dal Lake, Srinagar Phalagam, Gulmarg, Yeusmarg and Mughal Gardens etc. However, the tourism industry is severely affected by the insurgency.
In recent years, Ladakh has emerged as a major hub for adventure tourism. This part of Greater Himalaya called "moon on earth" comprising of naked peaks and deep gorges was once known for the silk route to High Asia from the subcontinent. Leh is also a growing tourist spot.
See Also: Jammu & Kashmir Official Tourism Website
[edit] Karnataka
Main article: Tourism in Karnataka
Gol Gumbaz at Bijapur, has the second largest pre-modern dome in the world after the Byzantine Hagia Sophia.Karnataka has been ranked as fourth most popular destination for tourism among states of India. It has the second highest number of protected monuments in India, at 507.
Kannada dynasties like Kadambas, Western Gangas, Chalukyas, Rashtrakutas, Hoysalas and Vijayanagaras, ruled Karnataka particularly North Karnataka.[9][10] They built great monuments to Buddhism, Jainism, Shaivism. The monuments are still present at Badami, Aihole, Pattadakal, Hampi, Lakshmeshwar, Sudi, Hooli, Mahadeva Temple (Itagi), Dambal, Lakkundi, Gadag, Hangal, Halasi, Galaganatha, Chaudayyadanapura, Banavasi, Belur, Halebidu, Shravanabelagola, Sannati and many more. Notable Islamic monuments are present at Bijapur, Bidar, Gulbarga, Raichur and other part of the state. Gol Gumbaz at Bijapur, has the second largest pre-modern dome in the world after the Byzantine Hagia Sophia. Karnataka has two World heritage sites, at Hampi and Pattadakal, both are in North Karnataka.
Karnataka is famous for its waterfalls. Jog falls of Shimoga District is one of the highest waterfalls in Asia. This state has 21 wildlife sanctuaries and five National parks and is home to more than 500 species of birds. Karnataka has many beaches at Karwar, Gokarna, Murdeshwara, Surathkal. Karnataka is a rock climbers paradise. Yana in Uttara Kannada, Fort in Chitradurga, Ramnagara near Bangalore district, Shivagange in Tumkur district and tekal in Kolar district are a rock climbers heaven.[citation needed]
See Also: Karnataka Official Tourism Website
[edit] Kerala
Kerala, nicknamed as "God's own country," is famous for its houseboats.Main article: Tourism in Kerala
Kerala is a state on the tropical Malabar Coast of southwestern India. Nicknamed as one of the "10 paradises of the world" by National Geographic, Kerala is famous especially for its ecotourism initiatives. Its unique culture and traditions, coupled with its varied demography, has made it one of the most popular tourist destinations in India. Growing at a rate of 13.31%, the tourism industry significantly contributes to the state's economy.
Kerala is known for its tropical backwaters and pristine beaches such as Kovalam.
See Also: Kerala Tourism Official Website
[edit] Madhya Pradesh
Main article: Tourism in Madhya Pradesh
The temples of Khajuraho are famous for their erotic sculptures. The Khajuraho group of monuments are a UNESCO World Heritage Site.Madhya Pradesh is called the "Heart of India" because of its location in the centre of the country. It has been home to the cultural heritage of Hinduism, Islam, Buddhism, Sikhism, Jainism. Innumerable monuments, exquisitely carved temples, stupas, forts and palaces are dotted all over the State.
The temples of Khajuraho are world-famous for their erotic sculptures, and are a UNESCO World Heritage Site. Gwalior is famous for its forts, the Tomb of Rani Lakshmibai, and the Palace of Tansen.
Madhya Pradesh is also known as Tiger State because of the tiger population. Famous national parks like Kanha, Bandhavgadh, Shivpuri, Sanjay, Pench are located in MP. Spectacular mountain ranges, meandering rivers and miles and miles of dense forests offering a unique and exciting panorama of wildlife in sylvan surroundings.
See Also: Madhya Pradesh Offical Tourism Website
[edit] Maharashtra
Mumbai is the most cosmopolitan city in India, famous for its architecture, shopping, gastronomy, and Bollywood. Maharashtra accounts for second largest foreign tourists arrivals in India.[11]Main article: Tourism in Maharashtra
See also: Tourist Attractions in Mumbai and Tourist attractions in Aurangabad district
Maharashtra is the second most visited state in India by foreign tourists,[11] with more than 2 million foreign tourists arrivals annually. Maharashtra boasts of a large number of popular and revered religious venues that are heavily frequented by locals as well as out-of-state visitors.
Ajanta Caves, Ellora Caves and Victoria Terminus are the three UNESCO World Heritage sites in Maharashtra and are highly responsible for the development of Tourism in the state.
Mumbai is the most cosmopolitan city in India, and a great place to experience modern India. Mumbai famous for Bollywood, the world's largest film industry. In addition, Mumbai is famous for its clubs, shopping, and upscale gastronomy. The city is known for its architecture, from the ancient Elephanta Caves, to the Islamic Haji Ali Mosque, to the colonial architecture of Bombay High Court and Victoria Terminus.
Maharashtra also has numerous adventure tourism destinations, including paragliding, rock climbing, canoeing, kayaking, snorkeling, and scuba diving. Maharashtra also has several pristine national parks and reserves. The Bibi Ka Maqbara at Aurangabad the Mahalakshmi temple at Kolhapur, the cities of Nashik, Trimbak famous for religious importance and the city of Pune the seat of the Maratha Empire and the fantastic Ganesh Chaturthi celebrations together contribute for the Tourism sector of Mahrashtra.
See Also: Maharashtra Tourism Official Website
[edit] Orissa
Konark Sun Temple built by the Eastern Ganga dynasty is a UNESCO World Heritage Site.Orissa has been a preferred destination from ancient days for people who have an interest in spirituality, religion, culture, art and natural beauty. Ancient and medieval architecture, pristine sea beaches, the classical and ethnic dance forms and a variety of festivals. Orissa has kept the religion of Buddhism alive. Rock-edicts that have challenged time stand huge and over-powering by the banks of the river Daya. The torch of Buddhism is still ablaze in the sublime triangle at Udayagiri and Khandagiri Caves, on the banks of river Birupa. Precious fragments of a glorious past come alive in the shape of stupas, rock-cut caves, rock-edicts, excavated monasteries, viharas, chaityas and sacred relics in caskets and the Rock-edicts of Ashoka. Orissa is also famous for its well-preserved Hindu Temples, especially the Konark Sun Temple.[12]
Orissa is the home for various tribal communities who have contributed uniquely to the multicultural and multilingual character of the state. Their handicrafts, different dance forms, jungle products and their unique life style blended with their healing practices have got world wide attention.
See Also: Orissa Tourism Official Website
[edit] Puducherry
Main article: Tourism in Puducherry
The Matrimandir, a golden metallic sphere in auroville, PuducherryThe Union Territory of Puducherry comprises four coastal regions viz- Puducherry, Karaikal, Mahe and Yanam. Puducherry is the Capital of this Union Territory and one of the most popular tourist destinations in South India. Puducherry has been described by National Geographic as "a glowing highlight of subcontinental sojourn". The city has many beautiful colonial buildings, churches, temples, and statues, which, combined with the systematic town planning and the well planned French style avenues, still preserve much of the colonial ambience.
[edit] Punjab
Main article: Tourism in Punjab (India)
Harimandir Sahib or "The Golden Temple"Punjab is one of India's most beautiful states. The state of Punjab is renowned for its cuisine, culture and history. Punjab has a vast public transportation and communication network. Some of the main cities in Punjab are Amritsar, Chandigarh, and Ludhiana. Punjab also has a rich religious history incorporating Sikhism and Hinduism. Tourism in Punjab is principally suited for the tourists interested in culture, ancient civilization, spirituality and epic history. Some of the villages in Punjab are also a must see for the person who wants to see the true Punjab, with their beautiful traditional Indian homes, farms and temples, this is a must see for any visitor that goes to Punjab.
[edit] Rajasthan
Umaid Bhawan PalaceMain article: Tourism in Rajasthan
Rajasthan, literally meaning "Land of the Kings", is one of the most attractive tourist destinations in Northern India. The vast sand dunes of the Thar Desert attract millions of tourists from around the globe every year.
Attractions:
Jaipur - The capital of Rajasthan, famous for its rich history and royal architecture.
Jodhpur - Fortress-city at the edge of the Thar Desert, famous for its blue homes and architecture.
Udaipur - Known as the "Venice" of India.
Jaisalmer - Famous for its golden fortress.
Barmer - Barmer and surrounding areas offer perfect picture of typical Rajasthani villages.
Bikaner - Famous for its medieval history as a trade route outpost.
Mount Abu - Is the highest peak in the Aravalli Range of Rajasthan.
Pushkar - It has the first and one of the very Brahma temples in the world.
Nathdwara - This town near Udaipur hosts the famous temple of Shrinathji.
Ranthambore - Situated near Sawai Madhopur, this town has one of the largest and most famous national parks in India.
See Also: Rajasthan Tourism Official Website
[edit] Sikkim
Kangchenjunga at Sikkim is the third highest mountain in the world.Originally known as Suk-Heem, which in the local language means "peaceful home", Sikkim was an independent kingdom till the year 1974, when it became a part of the Republic of India. The capital of Sikkim is Gangtok, located approximately 185 kilometers from New Jalpaiguri, the nearest railway station to Sikkim. Although, an airport is under construction at Dekiling in East Sikkim, the nearest airport to Sikkim would be Bagdogra. Sikkim is considered as the land of Orchids and mystic cultures and colorful traditions. Sikkim is well known among trekkers and adventure lovers, as West Sikkim has a lot to give them.
Places near Sikkim include Darjeeling also known as the Queen of hills and Kalimpong. Darjeeling, other than its world famous "Darjeeling tea" is also famous for its refined "Prep schools" founded during the British Raj. Kalimpong is also famous for its flora cultivation and is home to many internationally known Nurseries.
See Also: Sikkim Tourism Official Website
[edit] Tamil Nadu
Main article: Tourism in Tamil Nadu
The Shore Temple in Mahabalipuram is an ancient temple on the Indian Ocean, and a UNESCO World Heritage Site.Tamil Nadu is the third most visited state in India by foreign tourists, with more than 2 million foreign tourists arrivals annually. Tamil Nadu lies in the southern Indian peninsula, on the shores of the Bay of Bengal. Many great rulers including the Cholas, Pallavas, Pandyas and the Vijayanagara Empire ruled over parts of Tamil Nadu. The state is known for its cultural heritage and temple architecture. [[Meenakshi Amman temple] at Madurai, Nellaiappar Temple at Tirunelveli, Periya Kovil at Tanjore are the best examples of Tamil Nadu's temple architecture. Kanyakumari is the southernmost tip of India where both sunset and sunshine can be seen.
Attractions includeMahabalipuram, famous for its Shore Temple, Coutrallam falls(near Tirunelveli), Auroville, an International Utopian city, Mudumalai Wildlife Sanctuary, Ooty and Kodaikanal, two famous hill stations. The Nilgiri Mountain Railway is a Unesco World Heritage Site.
See Also: Tamil Nadu Tourism Official Website
[edit] Uttarakhand
The Valley of Flowers and Nanda Devi National Parks are UNESCO World Heritage Sites.Uttaranchal is the 27th state of the Republic of India. It contains glaciers, snow-clad mountains, valley of flowers, skiing slopes and dense forests, and many shrines and places of pilgrimage. Char-dhams, the four most sacred and revered Hindu temples: Badrinath, Kedarnath, Gangotri and Yamunotri are nestled in the Himalayas. Haridwar which means Gateway to God is the only place on the plains.
It holds the watershed for Gangetic River System spanning 300 km from Satluj in the west to Kali river in the east. Nanda Devi (25640 Ft) is the second highest peak in India after Kanchenjunga (28160 Ft). Dunagiri, Neelkanth, Chaukhamba, Panchachuli, Trisul are other peaks above 23000 Ft. It is considered the abode of Devtas, Yakashyas, Kinners, Fairies and Sages.[citation needed] It boasts of some old hill-stations developed during British era like Mussoorie, Almora and Nainital.
Glaciers
Pindari Glacier, Milam Glacier, Gangotri Glacier, Bunder Punch Glacier, Khatling Glacier, Doonagiri Glacier, Dokrani Glacier, Kaphini Glacier, Ralam Glacier
Wildlife Reserves
Corbett National Park, Rajaji National Park, Asan Conservation Reserve, Nanda Devi National Park, Govind Wildlife Sanctuary, Askot Musk Deer Sanctuary (Askot), Valley of Flowers
Adventure Sports
Skiing at Mundali, Auli, Dayara Bagyal and Munsiyari. Trekking at Mussoorie, Uttarkashi, Joshimath, Munsiyari, Chaukori, Pauri, Almora, Nainital
See Also: Uttarakhand Tourism Official Website
[edit] Uttar Pradesh
Main article: Tourism in Uttar Pradesh
Diwan-i-Khas – Hall of Private Audience at Fatehpur SikriSituated in the northern part of India, Uttar Pradesh is important with its wealth of monuments and religious fervour. Geographically, Uttar Pradesh is very diverse, with Himalayan foothills in the extreme north, the Gangetic Plain in the centre, and the Vindhya Mountain Range towards the South. It is also home of India's most visited site, the Taj Mahal, and Hinduism's holiest city, Varanasi. The most populous state of the Indian Union also has a rich cultural heritage, and at the heart of North India, Uttar Pradesh has much to offer. Places of interest include Varanasi, Agra, Kanpur, Lucknow, Mathura, Jhansi, Prayag, Sarnath, Ayodhya, Dudhwa National Park and Fatehpur Sikri.
[edit] West Bengal
Victoria Memorial in KolkataKolkata, one of the many cities in the state of West Bengal has been nicknamed the City of Palaces. This comes from the numerous palatial mansions built all over the city. Unlike many north Indian cities, whose construction stresses minimalism, the layout of much of the architectural variety in Kolkata owes its origins to European styles and tastes imported by the British and, to a much lesser extent, the Portuguese and French. The buildings were designed and inspired by the tastes of the English gentleman around and the aspiring Bengali Babu (literally, a nouveau riche Bengali who aspired to cultivation of English etiquette, manners and custom, as such practices were favourable to monetary gains from the British). Today, many of these structures are in various stages of decay. Some of the major buildings of this period are well maintained and several buildings have been declared as heritage structures.
From historical point of view, the story of West Bengal begins from Gour and Pandua situated close to the present district town of Malda. The twin medieval cities had been sacked at least once by changing powers in the 15th century. However, ruins from the period still remain, and several architectural specimens still retain the glory and shin of those times. The Hindu architecture of Bishnupur in terracotta and laterite sandstone are renowned world over. Towards the British colonial period came the architecture of Murshidabad and Coochbehar.
Notable site of West Bengal
Cooch Behar · Cooch Behar · Darjeeling · Kalimpong · Kurseong · Dooars · Digha · Bishnupur · Malda · Mukutmanipur · Ayodhya Hills · Murshidabad · Kolkata.
Places of Worship
Dakshineswar Kali Temple · Kalighat Temple · Birla temple · Belur Math · Bhoothnath · Tipu Sultan Mosque · Nakhoda Mosque · St. Paul's Cathedral · St. John's Church · Parsi Fire Temples · Japanese Buddhist Temple · Pareshnath Jain Temple
See Also: Tourism Official Website
[edit] Historic monuments
The Taj Mahal is one of India's best-known sites and one of the best architectural achievements in India. Located in Agra, it was built between 1631 and 1653 by Emperor Shah Jahan in honor of his wife, Arjumand Banu, more popularly known as Mumtaz Mahal. The Taj Mahal serves as her tomb.
The Mahabodhi Temple A 2000 year old temple dedicated to Gautam Buddha in Bodh Gaya. It is a UNESCO World Heritage Site.
The Nalanda Vishvavidyalaya, located in the Indian State of Bihar, was a Buddhist center of learning from 427 C.E to 1197 C.E partly under the Pala Empire.[13].[14] It has been called "one of the first great universities in recorded history."[14]. According to historical studies the University of Nalanda was established 450 C.E under the patronage of the Gupta emperors, notably Kumaragupta.[13].
The Brihadishwara Temple in Thanjavur, Tamil nadu built by the Cholas, this temple is one of India's most prized architectural sites.
The Airavateswara temple located in the town of Darasuram, near Kumbakonam, Tamil nadu.
The Shore Temple, along with the collection of other monuments in Mahabalipuram, Tamil nadu have been declared as UNESCO World Heritage Sites.
The Golden Temple is one of the most respected temples in India and the most sacred place for Sikhs. The Golden Temple is located in Amritsar, Punjab, India.
The Bahá'í temple in Delhi, was completed in 1986 and serves as the Mother Temple of the Indian Subcontinent. It has won numerous architectural awards and been featured in hundreds of newspaper and magazine articles. (It is also known as the Lotus Temple.)
The Hawa Mahal in Jaipur also known as Palace of Winds is major attraction in Jaipur..
The Taj Mahal Palace is an icon of Mumbai.
The Victoria Memorial in Kolkata
[edit] Nature Tourism
India has geographical diversity, which resulted in varieties of nature tourism.
Water falls in Western Ghats including Jog falls (highest in India).
Western Ghats
Hill Stations
Wildlife reserves
Deserts
[edit] Wildlife in India
Main article: Fauna of India
Royal Bengal Tiger in Sundarbans. The world's largest mangrove forest as well as a UNESCO World Heritage Site.India is home to several well known large mammals including the Asian Elephant, Bengal Tiger, Asiatic Lion, Leopard and Indian Rhinoceros, often engrained culturally and religiously often being associated with deities. Other well known large Indian mammals include ungulates such as the domestic Asian Water buffalo, wild Asian Water buffalo, Nilgai, Gaur and several species of deer and antelope. Some members of the dog family such as the Indian Wolf, Bengal Fox, Golden Jackal and the Dhole or Wild Dogs are also widely distributed. It is also home to the Striped Hyaena, Macaques, Langurs and Mongoose species. India also has a large variety of protected wildlife. The country's protected wilderness consists of 75 National parks of India and 421 Sanctuaries, of which 19 fall under the purview of Project Tiger. Its climatic and geographic diversity makes it the home of over 350 mammals and 1200 bird species, many of which are unique to the subcontinent.
Some well known national wildlife sanctuaries include Bharatpur, Corbett, Kanha, Kaziranga, Periyar,Ranthambore and Sariska. The world's largest mangrove forest Sundarbans is located in southern West Bengal. The Sundarbans and [[Keoladev National Park]in [Rajasthan]] is UNESCO World Heritage Site.
[edit] Hill stations
A summer view of Khajjiar, a hill station in Himachal Pradesh.Main article: List of Indian hill stations
Several hill stations served as summer capitals of Indian provinces, princely states, or, in the case of Shimla, of British India itself. Since Indian Independence, the role of these hill stations as summer capitals has largely ended, but many hill stations remain popular summer resorts. Most famous hill stations are:
Mount Abu, Rajasthan
Pachmarhi, Madhya Pradesh - It is also known as The Queen of Satpura.
Araku, Andhra Pradesh
Gulmarg, Srinagar and Laddakh in Jammu and Kashmir
Darjeeling in West Bengal
Munnar in Kerala
Ooty and Kodaikanal in Tamil Nadu
Shillong in Meghalaya
Shimla, Kullu in Himachal Pradesh
Nainital in Uttarakhand
Gangtok in Sikkim
Mussoorie in Uttarakhand
In addition to the bustling hill stations and summer capitals of yore, there are several serene and peaceful nature retreats and places of interest to visit for a nature lover. These range from the stunning moonscapes of Leh and Ladhak, to small, exclusive nature retreats such as Dunagiri, Binsar, Mukteshwar in the Himalayas, to rolling vistas of Western Ghats to numerous private retreats in the rolling hills of Kerala.
[edit] Beaches
Main article: List of beaches in India
This section requires expansion.
Elephants and camels rides are common on Indian beaches. Shown here is Havelock Island, part of the Andaman and Nicobar IslandsIndia offers a wide range of tropical beaches with silver/golden sand to coral beaches of Lakshadweep. States like Kerala and Goa have exploited the potential of beaches to the fullest. However, there are a lot many unexploited beaches in the states of Andhra Pradesh, Gujarat, Maharastra, Tamil Nadu and Karnataka. These states have very high potential to be develop them as future destinations for prospective tourists. Some of the famous tourist beaches are:
Beaches of Vizag, Andhra Pradesh
Beaches of Puri, Orissa
Beaches of Digha, West Bengal
Beaches of Goa
Kovalam Beach, Kerala
Marina Beach, Chennai
Beaches of Mahabalipuram
Beaches in Mumbai
Beaches of Diu
Beaches of Midnapore, West Bengal
Andaman and Nicobar Islands
Lakshadweep Islands
[edit] Adventure Tourism
Skiing in Manali, Himachal PradeshRiver rafting and kayaking in Himalayas
Mountain climbing in Himalayas
Rock climbing in Madhya Pradesh
Skiing in Gulmarg or Auli
Boat racing in Bhopal
Paragliding in Maharashtra
According to World Travel and Tourism Council, India will be a tourism hotspot from 2009-2018,[3] having the highest 10-year growth potential.[4] The Travel & Tourism Competitiveness Report 2007 ranked tourism in India 6th in terms of price competitiveness and 39th in terms of safety and security.[5] Despite short- and medium-term setbacks, such as shortage of hotel rooms,[6] tourism revenues are expected to surge by 42% from 2007 to 2017.[7]
India has a growing medical tourism sector. The 2010 Commonwealth Games in Delhi are expected to significantly boost tourism in India.
Andhra Pradesh
Further information: Tourist attractions in Hyderabad
Charminar in HyderabadAndhra Pradesh has a rich cultural heritage and a variety of tourist attractions. The state of Andhra Pradesh comprises scenic hills, forests, beaches and temples. Also known as The City of Nizams and The City of Pearls, Hyderabad is today one of the most developed cities in the country and a modern hub of information technology, ITES, and biotechnology. Hyderabad is known for its rich history, culture and architecture representing its unique character as a meeting point for North and South India, and also its multilingual culture, both geographically and culturally.
Andhra Pradesh is the home of many religious pilgrim centres. Tirupati, the abode of Lord Venkateswara, is the richest and most visited religious center (of any faith) in the world. Srisailam, the abode of Sri Mallikarjuna, is one of twelve Jyothirlingalu in India, Amaravati's Siva temple is one of the Pancharamams, and Yadagirigutta, the abode of an avatara of Vishnu, Sri Lakshmi Narasimha. The Ramappa temple and Thousand Pillars temple in Warangal are famous for some fine temple carvings. The state has numerous Buddhist centres at Amaravati, Nagarjuna Konda, Bhattiprolu, Ghantasala, Nelakondapalli, Dhulikatta, Bavikonda, Thotlakonda, Shalihundam, Pavuralakonda, Sankaram, Phanigiri and Kolanpaka.
The golden beaches at Visakhapatnam, the one-million-year old limestone caves at Borra, picturesque Araku Valley, hill resorts of Horsley Hills, river Godavari racing through a narrow gorge at Papi Kondalu, waterfalls at Ettipotala, Kuntala and rich bio-diversity at Talakona, are some of the natural attractions of the state. Visakhapatnam is home to many tourist attactions such as the INS Karasura Submarine museum (The only one of its kind in India), Yarada Beach, Araku Valley, VUDA Park, Indira Gandhi Zoological Gardens. The weather in Andhra Pradesh is mostly tropical and the best time to visit is in November through to January. The monsoon season commences in June and ends in September, so travel would not be advisable during this period.
See Also: Andhra Pradesh Official Tourism Website
[edit] Assam
Main article: Tourism in Assam
Great Indian One-Horned Rhinoceros in Kaziranga National Park.Assam is the central state in the North-East Region of India and serves as the gateway to the rest of the Seven Sister States. Assam boasts of famous wildlife preserves – the Kaziranga National Park (pictured) and the Manas National Park, the largest river island Majuli, and tea-estates dating back to time of British Raj. The weather is mostly sub-tropical. Assam experiences the Indian monsoon and has one of the highest forest densities in India. The winter months (October to April) are the best time to visit.
Assam has a rich cultural heritage going back to the Ahom Kingdom which governed the region for many centuries before the British occupation. Other notable features include the Brahmaputra River, the mystery of the bird suicides in Jatinga, numerous temples including Kamakhya of Tantric sect, ruins of palaces, etc. Guwahati, the capital city of Assam, boasts many bazaars, temples, and wildlife sanctuaries.
See Also: Assam Official Tourism Website
[edit] Bihar
Main article: Tourism in Bihar
Mahabodhi Temple is a UNESCO World Heritage SiteBihar is one of the oldest continuously inhabited places in the world with history of 3000 years. The rich culture and heritage of Bihar is evident from the innumerable ancient monuments that are dotted all over this state in eastern India. This is the Place of Aryabhatta, Great Ashoka, Chanakya and many more.
Bihar is one of the most sacred places of various religions such as Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism, Sikhism & Islam. Famous Attraction includes Mahabodhi Temple, a Buddhist shrine and UNESCO World Heritage Site is also situated in Bihar, Barabar Caves the oldest rockcut caves in India, Khuda Bakhsh Oriental Library the Oldest Library of India.
[edit] Delhi
Lotus TempleMain article: Tourism in Delhi
Delhi is the capital city of India. A fine blend of old and new, ancient and modern, Delhi is a melting pot of cultures, religions. Delhi has been the capital of numerous empires that ruled India, making it rich in history. The rulers left behind their trademark architectural styles. Delhi currently has many renowned historic monuments and landmarks such as the Tughlaqabad fort, Qutub Minar, Purana Quila, Lodhi Gardens, Jama Masjid, Humayun's tomb, Red Fort, and Safdarjung's Tomb. Modern monuments include Jantar Mantar, India Gate, Rashtrapati Bhavan, Laxminarayan Temple, Lotus temple and Akshardham Temple.
New Delhi is famous for its British colonial architecture, wide roads, and tree-lined boulevards. Delhi is home to numerous political landmarks, national museums, Islamic shrines, Hindu temples, green parks, and trendy malls.
See Also: Delhi Tourism Official Website
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[edit] Goa
Goa is noted for its resorts and beaches.Main article: Tourism in Goa
Goa is one of the most famous tourist destinations in India. A former colony of Portugal, Goa is famous for its excellent beaches, Portuguese churches, Hindu temples, and wildlife sanctuaries. The Basilica of Bom Jesus, Mangueshi Temple, Dudhsagar Falls, and Shantadurga are famous attractions in Goa. Recently a Wax Museum (Wax World) has also opened in Old Goa housing a number of wax personalities of Indian history, culture and heritage.
The Goa Carnival is a world famous event, with colorful masks and floats, drums and reverberating music, and dance performances. The celebrations run three days culminating in a carnival parade on fat Tuesday.
See Also: Goa Tourism Official Website
[edit] Himachal Pradesh
The Himalayan landscape of Himachal Pradesh is ideal for out-door activities such as skiingHimachal Pradesh is famous for its Himalayan landscapes and popular hill-stations. Many outdoor activities such as rock climbing, mountain biking, paragliding, ice-skating, and heli-skiing are popular tourist attractions in Himachal Pradesh.[8]
Shimla, the state capital, is very popular among tourists. The Kalka-Shimla Railway is a Mountain railway which is a UNESCO World Heritage Site. Shimla is also a famous skiing attraction in India. Other popular hill stations include Manali and Kasauli.
Dharamshala, home of the Dalai Lama, is known for its Tibetan monasteries and Buddhist temples. Many trekking expeditions also begin here.
See Also Himachal Pradesh Official Website
[edit] Jammu and Kashmir
Main article: Tourism in Jammu and Kashmir
Jammu & Kashmir is known for its scenic landscapeJammu and Kashmir is the northernmost state of India. Jammu is noted for its scenic landscape, ancient temples, Hindu shrines, castles, gardens, and forts. The Hindu holy shrines of Amarnath and Vaishno Devi attract tens of thousands of Hindu devotees every year. Jammu's natural landscape has made it one of the popular destinations for adventure tourism in South Asia. Jammu's historic monuments feature a unique blend of Islamic and Hindu architecture styles.
Tourism forms an integral part of the Kashmiri economy. Often dubbed "Paradise on Earth", Kashmir's mountainous landscape has attracted tourists for centuries. Notable places are Dal Lake, Srinagar Phalagam, Gulmarg, Yeusmarg and Mughal Gardens etc. However, the tourism industry is severely affected by the insurgency.
In recent years, Ladakh has emerged as a major hub for adventure tourism. This part of Greater Himalaya called "moon on earth" comprising of naked peaks and deep gorges was once known for the silk route to High Asia from the subcontinent. Leh is also a growing tourist spot.
See Also: Jammu & Kashmir Official Tourism Website
[edit] Karnataka
Main article: Tourism in Karnataka
Gol Gumbaz at Bijapur, has the second largest pre-modern dome in the world after the Byzantine Hagia Sophia.Karnataka has been ranked as fourth most popular destination for tourism among states of India. It has the second highest number of protected monuments in India, at 507.
Kannada dynasties like Kadambas, Western Gangas, Chalukyas, Rashtrakutas, Hoysalas and Vijayanagaras, ruled Karnataka particularly North Karnataka.[9][10] They built great monuments to Buddhism, Jainism, Shaivism. The monuments are still present at Badami, Aihole, Pattadakal, Hampi, Lakshmeshwar, Sudi, Hooli, Mahadeva Temple (Itagi), Dambal, Lakkundi, Gadag, Hangal, Halasi, Galaganatha, Chaudayyadanapura, Banavasi, Belur, Halebidu, Shravanabelagola, Sannati and many more. Notable Islamic monuments are present at Bijapur, Bidar, Gulbarga, Raichur and other part of the state. Gol Gumbaz at Bijapur, has the second largest pre-modern dome in the world after the Byzantine Hagia Sophia. Karnataka has two World heritage sites, at Hampi and Pattadakal, both are in North Karnataka.
Karnataka is famous for its waterfalls. Jog falls of Shimoga District is one of the highest waterfalls in Asia. This state has 21 wildlife sanctuaries and five National parks and is home to more than 500 species of birds. Karnataka has many beaches at Karwar, Gokarna, Murdeshwara, Surathkal. Karnataka is a rock climbers paradise. Yana in Uttara Kannada, Fort in Chitradurga, Ramnagara near Bangalore district, Shivagange in Tumkur district and tekal in Kolar district are a rock climbers heaven.[citation needed]
See Also: Karnataka Official Tourism Website
[edit] Kerala
Kerala, nicknamed as "God's own country," is famous for its houseboats.Main article: Tourism in Kerala
Kerala is a state on the tropical Malabar Coast of southwestern India. Nicknamed as one of the "10 paradises of the world" by National Geographic, Kerala is famous especially for its ecotourism initiatives. Its unique culture and traditions, coupled with its varied demography, has made it one of the most popular tourist destinations in India. Growing at a rate of 13.31%, the tourism industry significantly contributes to the state's economy.
Kerala is known for its tropical backwaters and pristine beaches such as Kovalam.
See Also: Kerala Tourism Official Website
[edit] Madhya Pradesh
Main article: Tourism in Madhya Pradesh
The temples of Khajuraho are famous for their erotic sculptures. The Khajuraho group of monuments are a UNESCO World Heritage Site.Madhya Pradesh is called the "Heart of India" because of its location in the centre of the country. It has been home to the cultural heritage of Hinduism, Islam, Buddhism, Sikhism, Jainism. Innumerable monuments, exquisitely carved temples, stupas, forts and palaces are dotted all over the State.
The temples of Khajuraho are world-famous for their erotic sculptures, and are a UNESCO World Heritage Site. Gwalior is famous for its forts, the Tomb of Rani Lakshmibai, and the Palace of Tansen.
Madhya Pradesh is also known as Tiger State because of the tiger population. Famous national parks like Kanha, Bandhavgadh, Shivpuri, Sanjay, Pench are located in MP. Spectacular mountain ranges, meandering rivers and miles and miles of dense forests offering a unique and exciting panorama of wildlife in sylvan surroundings.
See Also: Madhya Pradesh Offical Tourism Website
[edit] Maharashtra
Mumbai is the most cosmopolitan city in India, famous for its architecture, shopping, gastronomy, and Bollywood. Maharashtra accounts for second largest foreign tourists arrivals in India.[11]Main article: Tourism in Maharashtra
See also: Tourist Attractions in Mumbai and Tourist attractions in Aurangabad district
Maharashtra is the second most visited state in India by foreign tourists,[11] with more than 2 million foreign tourists arrivals annually. Maharashtra boasts of a large number of popular and revered religious venues that are heavily frequented by locals as well as out-of-state visitors.
Ajanta Caves, Ellora Caves and Victoria Terminus are the three UNESCO World Heritage sites in Maharashtra and are highly responsible for the development of Tourism in the state.
Mumbai is the most cosmopolitan city in India, and a great place to experience modern India. Mumbai famous for Bollywood, the world's largest film industry. In addition, Mumbai is famous for its clubs, shopping, and upscale gastronomy. The city is known for its architecture, from the ancient Elephanta Caves, to the Islamic Haji Ali Mosque, to the colonial architecture of Bombay High Court and Victoria Terminus.
Maharashtra also has numerous adventure tourism destinations, including paragliding, rock climbing, canoeing, kayaking, snorkeling, and scuba diving. Maharashtra also has several pristine national parks and reserves. The Bibi Ka Maqbara at Aurangabad the Mahalakshmi temple at Kolhapur, the cities of Nashik, Trimbak famous for religious importance and the city of Pune the seat of the Maratha Empire and the fantastic Ganesh Chaturthi celebrations together contribute for the Tourism sector of Mahrashtra.
See Also: Maharashtra Tourism Official Website
[edit] Orissa
Konark Sun Temple built by the Eastern Ganga dynasty is a UNESCO World Heritage Site.Orissa has been a preferred destination from ancient days for people who have an interest in spirituality, religion, culture, art and natural beauty. Ancient and medieval architecture, pristine sea beaches, the classical and ethnic dance forms and a variety of festivals. Orissa has kept the religion of Buddhism alive. Rock-edicts that have challenged time stand huge and over-powering by the banks of the river Daya. The torch of Buddhism is still ablaze in the sublime triangle at Udayagiri and Khandagiri Caves, on the banks of river Birupa. Precious fragments of a glorious past come alive in the shape of stupas, rock-cut caves, rock-edicts, excavated monasteries, viharas, chaityas and sacred relics in caskets and the Rock-edicts of Ashoka. Orissa is also famous for its well-preserved Hindu Temples, especially the Konark Sun Temple.[12]
Orissa is the home for various tribal communities who have contributed uniquely to the multicultural and multilingual character of the state. Their handicrafts, different dance forms, jungle products and their unique life style blended with their healing practices have got world wide attention.
See Also: Orissa Tourism Official Website
[edit] Puducherry
Main article: Tourism in Puducherry
The Matrimandir, a golden metallic sphere in auroville, PuducherryThe Union Territory of Puducherry comprises four coastal regions viz- Puducherry, Karaikal, Mahe and Yanam. Puducherry is the Capital of this Union Territory and one of the most popular tourist destinations in South India. Puducherry has been described by National Geographic as "a glowing highlight of subcontinental sojourn". The city has many beautiful colonial buildings, churches, temples, and statues, which, combined with the systematic town planning and the well planned French style avenues, still preserve much of the colonial ambience.
[edit] Punjab
Main article: Tourism in Punjab (India)
Harimandir Sahib or "The Golden Temple"Punjab is one of India's most beautiful states. The state of Punjab is renowned for its cuisine, culture and history. Punjab has a vast public transportation and communication network. Some of the main cities in Punjab are Amritsar, Chandigarh, and Ludhiana. Punjab also has a rich religious history incorporating Sikhism and Hinduism. Tourism in Punjab is principally suited for the tourists interested in culture, ancient civilization, spirituality and epic history. Some of the villages in Punjab are also a must see for the person who wants to see the true Punjab, with their beautiful traditional Indian homes, farms and temples, this is a must see for any visitor that goes to Punjab.
[edit] Rajasthan
Umaid Bhawan PalaceMain article: Tourism in Rajasthan
Rajasthan, literally meaning "Land of the Kings", is one of the most attractive tourist destinations in Northern India. The vast sand dunes of the Thar Desert attract millions of tourists from around the globe every year.
Attractions:
Jaipur - The capital of Rajasthan, famous for its rich history and royal architecture.
Jodhpur - Fortress-city at the edge of the Thar Desert, famous for its blue homes and architecture.
Udaipur - Known as the "Venice" of India.
Jaisalmer - Famous for its golden fortress.
Barmer - Barmer and surrounding areas offer perfect picture of typical Rajasthani villages.
Bikaner - Famous for its medieval history as a trade route outpost.
Mount Abu - Is the highest peak in the Aravalli Range of Rajasthan.
Pushkar - It has the first and one of the very Brahma temples in the world.
Nathdwara - This town near Udaipur hosts the famous temple of Shrinathji.
Ranthambore - Situated near Sawai Madhopur, this town has one of the largest and most famous national parks in India.
See Also: Rajasthan Tourism Official Website
[edit] Sikkim
Kangchenjunga at Sikkim is the third highest mountain in the world.Originally known as Suk-Heem, which in the local language means "peaceful home", Sikkim was an independent kingdom till the year 1974, when it became a part of the Republic of India. The capital of Sikkim is Gangtok, located approximately 185 kilometers from New Jalpaiguri, the nearest railway station to Sikkim. Although, an airport is under construction at Dekiling in East Sikkim, the nearest airport to Sikkim would be Bagdogra. Sikkim is considered as the land of Orchids and mystic cultures and colorful traditions. Sikkim is well known among trekkers and adventure lovers, as West Sikkim has a lot to give them.
Places near Sikkim include Darjeeling also known as the Queen of hills and Kalimpong. Darjeeling, other than its world famous "Darjeeling tea" is also famous for its refined "Prep schools" founded during the British Raj. Kalimpong is also famous for its flora cultivation and is home to many internationally known Nurseries.
See Also: Sikkim Tourism Official Website
[edit] Tamil Nadu
Main article: Tourism in Tamil Nadu
The Shore Temple in Mahabalipuram is an ancient temple on the Indian Ocean, and a UNESCO World Heritage Site.Tamil Nadu is the third most visited state in India by foreign tourists, with more than 2 million foreign tourists arrivals annually. Tamil Nadu lies in the southern Indian peninsula, on the shores of the Bay of Bengal. Many great rulers including the Cholas, Pallavas, Pandyas and the Vijayanagara Empire ruled over parts of Tamil Nadu. The state is known for its cultural heritage and temple architecture. [[Meenakshi Amman temple] at Madurai, Nellaiappar Temple at Tirunelveli, Periya Kovil at Tanjore are the best examples of Tamil Nadu's temple architecture. Kanyakumari is the southernmost tip of India where both sunset and sunshine can be seen.
Attractions includeMahabalipuram, famous for its Shore Temple, Coutrallam falls(near Tirunelveli), Auroville, an International Utopian city, Mudumalai Wildlife Sanctuary, Ooty and Kodaikanal, two famous hill stations. The Nilgiri Mountain Railway is a Unesco World Heritage Site.
See Also: Tamil Nadu Tourism Official Website
[edit] Uttarakhand
The Valley of Flowers and Nanda Devi National Parks are UNESCO World Heritage Sites.Uttaranchal is the 27th state of the Republic of India. It contains glaciers, snow-clad mountains, valley of flowers, skiing slopes and dense forests, and many shrines and places of pilgrimage. Char-dhams, the four most sacred and revered Hindu temples: Badrinath, Kedarnath, Gangotri and Yamunotri are nestled in the Himalayas. Haridwar which means Gateway to God is the only place on the plains.
It holds the watershed for Gangetic River System spanning 300 km from Satluj in the west to Kali river in the east. Nanda Devi (25640 Ft) is the second highest peak in India after Kanchenjunga (28160 Ft). Dunagiri, Neelkanth, Chaukhamba, Panchachuli, Trisul are other peaks above 23000 Ft. It is considered the abode of Devtas, Yakashyas, Kinners, Fairies and Sages.[citation needed] It boasts of some old hill-stations developed during British era like Mussoorie, Almora and Nainital.
Glaciers
Pindari Glacier, Milam Glacier, Gangotri Glacier, Bunder Punch Glacier, Khatling Glacier, Doonagiri Glacier, Dokrani Glacier, Kaphini Glacier, Ralam Glacier
Wildlife Reserves
Corbett National Park, Rajaji National Park, Asan Conservation Reserve, Nanda Devi National Park, Govind Wildlife Sanctuary, Askot Musk Deer Sanctuary (Askot), Valley of Flowers
Adventure Sports
Skiing at Mundali, Auli, Dayara Bagyal and Munsiyari. Trekking at Mussoorie, Uttarkashi, Joshimath, Munsiyari, Chaukori, Pauri, Almora, Nainital
See Also: Uttarakhand Tourism Official Website
[edit] Uttar Pradesh
Main article: Tourism in Uttar Pradesh
Diwan-i-Khas – Hall of Private Audience at Fatehpur SikriSituated in the northern part of India, Uttar Pradesh is important with its wealth of monuments and religious fervour. Geographically, Uttar Pradesh is very diverse, with Himalayan foothills in the extreme north, the Gangetic Plain in the centre, and the Vindhya Mountain Range towards the South. It is also home of India's most visited site, the Taj Mahal, and Hinduism's holiest city, Varanasi. The most populous state of the Indian Union also has a rich cultural heritage, and at the heart of North India, Uttar Pradesh has much to offer. Places of interest include Varanasi, Agra, Kanpur, Lucknow, Mathura, Jhansi, Prayag, Sarnath, Ayodhya, Dudhwa National Park and Fatehpur Sikri.
[edit] West Bengal
Victoria Memorial in KolkataKolkata, one of the many cities in the state of West Bengal has been nicknamed the City of Palaces. This comes from the numerous palatial mansions built all over the city. Unlike many north Indian cities, whose construction stresses minimalism, the layout of much of the architectural variety in Kolkata owes its origins to European styles and tastes imported by the British and, to a much lesser extent, the Portuguese and French. The buildings were designed and inspired by the tastes of the English gentleman around and the aspiring Bengali Babu (literally, a nouveau riche Bengali who aspired to cultivation of English etiquette, manners and custom, as such practices were favourable to monetary gains from the British). Today, many of these structures are in various stages of decay. Some of the major buildings of this period are well maintained and several buildings have been declared as heritage structures.
From historical point of view, the story of West Bengal begins from Gour and Pandua situated close to the present district town of Malda. The twin medieval cities had been sacked at least once by changing powers in the 15th century. However, ruins from the period still remain, and several architectural specimens still retain the glory and shin of those times. The Hindu architecture of Bishnupur in terracotta and laterite sandstone are renowned world over. Towards the British colonial period came the architecture of Murshidabad and Coochbehar.
Notable site of West Bengal
Cooch Behar · Cooch Behar · Darjeeling · Kalimpong · Kurseong · Dooars · Digha · Bishnupur · Malda · Mukutmanipur · Ayodhya Hills · Murshidabad · Kolkata.
Places of Worship
Dakshineswar Kali Temple · Kalighat Temple · Birla temple · Belur Math · Bhoothnath · Tipu Sultan Mosque · Nakhoda Mosque · St. Paul's Cathedral · St. John's Church · Parsi Fire Temples · Japanese Buddhist Temple · Pareshnath Jain Temple
See Also: Tourism Official Website
[edit] Historic monuments
The Taj Mahal is one of India's best-known sites and one of the best architectural achievements in India. Located in Agra, it was built between 1631 and 1653 by Emperor Shah Jahan in honor of his wife, Arjumand Banu, more popularly known as Mumtaz Mahal. The Taj Mahal serves as her tomb.
The Mahabodhi Temple A 2000 year old temple dedicated to Gautam Buddha in Bodh Gaya. It is a UNESCO World Heritage Site.
The Nalanda Vishvavidyalaya, located in the Indian State of Bihar, was a Buddhist center of learning from 427 C.E to 1197 C.E partly under the Pala Empire.[13].[14] It has been called "one of the first great universities in recorded history."[14]. According to historical studies the University of Nalanda was established 450 C.E under the patronage of the Gupta emperors, notably Kumaragupta.[13].
The Brihadishwara Temple in Thanjavur, Tamil nadu built by the Cholas, this temple is one of India's most prized architectural sites.
The Airavateswara temple located in the town of Darasuram, near Kumbakonam, Tamil nadu.
The Shore Temple, along with the collection of other monuments in Mahabalipuram, Tamil nadu have been declared as UNESCO World Heritage Sites.
The Golden Temple is one of the most respected temples in India and the most sacred place for Sikhs. The Golden Temple is located in Amritsar, Punjab, India.
The Bahá'í temple in Delhi, was completed in 1986 and serves as the Mother Temple of the Indian Subcontinent. It has won numerous architectural awards and been featured in hundreds of newspaper and magazine articles. (It is also known as the Lotus Temple.)
The Hawa Mahal in Jaipur also known as Palace of Winds is major attraction in Jaipur..
The Taj Mahal Palace is an icon of Mumbai.
The Victoria Memorial in Kolkata
[edit] Nature Tourism
India has geographical diversity, which resulted in varieties of nature tourism.
Water falls in Western Ghats including Jog falls (highest in India).
Western Ghats
Hill Stations
Wildlife reserves
Deserts
[edit] Wildlife in India
Main article: Fauna of India
Royal Bengal Tiger in Sundarbans. The world's largest mangrove forest as well as a UNESCO World Heritage Site.India is home to several well known large mammals including the Asian Elephant, Bengal Tiger, Asiatic Lion, Leopard and Indian Rhinoceros, often engrained culturally and religiously often being associated with deities. Other well known large Indian mammals include ungulates such as the domestic Asian Water buffalo, wild Asian Water buffalo, Nilgai, Gaur and several species of deer and antelope. Some members of the dog family such as the Indian Wolf, Bengal Fox, Golden Jackal and the Dhole or Wild Dogs are also widely distributed. It is also home to the Striped Hyaena, Macaques, Langurs and Mongoose species. India also has a large variety of protected wildlife. The country's protected wilderness consists of 75 National parks of India and 421 Sanctuaries, of which 19 fall under the purview of Project Tiger. Its climatic and geographic diversity makes it the home of over 350 mammals and 1200 bird species, many of which are unique to the subcontinent.
Some well known national wildlife sanctuaries include Bharatpur, Corbett, Kanha, Kaziranga, Periyar,Ranthambore and Sariska. The world's largest mangrove forest Sundarbans is located in southern West Bengal. The Sundarbans and [[Keoladev National Park]in [Rajasthan]] is UNESCO World Heritage Site.
[edit] Hill stations
A summer view of Khajjiar, a hill station in Himachal Pradesh.Main article: List of Indian hill stations
Several hill stations served as summer capitals of Indian provinces, princely states, or, in the case of Shimla, of British India itself. Since Indian Independence, the role of these hill stations as summer capitals has largely ended, but many hill stations remain popular summer resorts. Most famous hill stations are:
Mount Abu, Rajasthan
Pachmarhi, Madhya Pradesh - It is also known as The Queen of Satpura.
Araku, Andhra Pradesh
Gulmarg, Srinagar and Laddakh in Jammu and Kashmir
Darjeeling in West Bengal
Munnar in Kerala
Ooty and Kodaikanal in Tamil Nadu
Shillong in Meghalaya
Shimla, Kullu in Himachal Pradesh
Nainital in Uttarakhand
Gangtok in Sikkim
Mussoorie in Uttarakhand
In addition to the bustling hill stations and summer capitals of yore, there are several serene and peaceful nature retreats and places of interest to visit for a nature lover. These range from the stunning moonscapes of Leh and Ladhak, to small, exclusive nature retreats such as Dunagiri, Binsar, Mukteshwar in the Himalayas, to rolling vistas of Western Ghats to numerous private retreats in the rolling hills of Kerala.
[edit] Beaches
Main article: List of beaches in India
This section requires expansion.
Elephants and camels rides are common on Indian beaches. Shown here is Havelock Island, part of the Andaman and Nicobar IslandsIndia offers a wide range of tropical beaches with silver/golden sand to coral beaches of Lakshadweep. States like Kerala and Goa have exploited the potential of beaches to the fullest. However, there are a lot many unexploited beaches in the states of Andhra Pradesh, Gujarat, Maharastra, Tamil Nadu and Karnataka. These states have very high potential to be develop them as future destinations for prospective tourists. Some of the famous tourist beaches are:
Beaches of Vizag, Andhra Pradesh
Beaches of Puri, Orissa
Beaches of Digha, West Bengal
Beaches of Goa
Kovalam Beach, Kerala
Marina Beach, Chennai
Beaches of Mahabalipuram
Beaches in Mumbai
Beaches of Diu
Beaches of Midnapore, West Bengal
Andaman and Nicobar Islands
Lakshadweep Islands
[edit] Adventure Tourism
Skiing in Manali, Himachal PradeshRiver rafting and kayaking in Himalayas
Mountain climbing in Himalayas
Rock climbing in Madhya Pradesh
Skiing in Gulmarg or Auli
Boat racing in Bhopal
Paragliding in Maharashtra
Tourism in England
Cultural and heritage tourism
England's long history and pervasive culture spread worldwide through the English language and colonialism make England a popular tourist destination, particularly in London (see Tourism in London).
Canterbury Cathedral.[edit] Heritage Cities in England
Bath: A spa, famous for its Regency architecture and crescents, and also for its Roman baths.
Brighton: Brighton is a seaside resort which includes two piers, West Pier and Brighton Pier, and also has the Royal Pavilion.
Bristol: Brunel's Clifton suspension bridge is a famous landmark, and the ship, the SS Great Britain is another of Brunel's famous constructions, which is now in dry dock in Bristol.
Cambridge: A famous university town.
Canterbury: Renowned for its cathedral.
Dover: A major port with access to the continent. Also well known for its white cliffs, and to a lesser extent for its castle, Dover Castle.
Haworth: where the Brontë Sisters lived, is very popular with Japanese tourists, as Wuthering Heights has a cult following in Japan.
Liverpool: The 2008 European Capital of Culture, a major port and World Heritage Site, home to two cathedrals and houses more listed buildings, museums and art galleries than any other city in the UK outside of London. The home of Liverpool F.C, the world famous football club. Is also famous for The Grand National, its musical, maritime and sporting heritage.
Oxford : now a busy commercial city, which also has a famous university.
Robin Hood Statue, Nottingham.Nottingham : The city and Nottingham Castle are famed worldwide for their links with the legend of Robin Hood. Sherwood Forest is nearby.
Portsmouth: Portsmouth is a naval dockyard, and has some famous ships on display, including the Mary Rose, and HMS Victory, all within its Historic Dockyard. Also home to Gunwharf Quays retail centre, with its iconic Spinnaker Tower.
Salisbury: Salisbury cathedral is well known, and has the tallest spire in the country. Nearby is the pre-historic site of Stonehenge, which is administered by English Heritage.
Stratford-upon-Avon: Shakespeare's birthplace is probably the most visited place in Stratford
Wells: best known for Wells Cathedral
York: Famous for York Minster. Also the location of the National Railway Museum and a wealth of preserved medieval streets and buildings, such as the Merchant Adventurers' Hall and the Shambles.
Other places in England are also of historical interest. The city of Manchester is the 2nd most visited city in England after London[1]. Many foreign tourists also visit the neighbouring countries Scotland and Wales – see tourism in Scotland and tourism in Wales.
Domestic tourists, and foreign tourists who have specific interests in art, music, history etc, also visit the following:
Birmingham: A major city, with an orchestra, major exhibition venues (NEC, ICC) and art galleries. Of historical interest for its significant role in the industrial revolution, the childhood home and inspiration of Tolkien, noted for its shopping and boasting the longest stretch of nightclubs in England.
Hadrian's Wall: The Roman wall built by order of the Emperor Hadrian.
Hereford: A cathedral city, famous for the chained library in the cathedral, and the Mappa Mundi
Ironbridge: The cradle of the industrial revolution and the site for the legendary Iron bridge.
Manchester: A major city, famous for the Hallé orchestra and many museums and art galleries, a classic example of buildings from the Victorian era. Also well known for the Manchester Ship Canal. Home of the world famous Manchester United F.C. and Manchester City F.C. the worlds richest football club. The host city of the 2002 Commonwealth Games. Manchester is also known for being the world's first industrialised city. Also noted for its shopping, cuisine and nightlife.
Leeds: A major city, a base to explore the historic county of Yorkshire. It is popular for shopping, nightlife and museums, including the Henry Moore foundation.
[edit] Ecotourism
England also has some unique natural environments, and has a significant Ecotourism industry:
Eden Project in Cornwall.
The Lake District, a national park with hills and lakes, including Windermere, the largest lake in England.
The Peak District, a national park in Derbyshire.
Dartmoor and Exmoor, national parks in Devon.
The New Forest, a rural forest park in Hampshire.
The Jurassic Coast, a World Heritage Site in Dorset and Devon
The National Forest, covering parts of Leicestershire, Derbyshire and Staffordshire.
Center Parcs, a number of rural holiday parks.
Plus various National Nature Reserves, Heritage Coasts and other protected areas.
[edit] See also
Enjoy England
Institute of Tourist Guiding
Tourism in Scotland
Tourism in Wales
Tourism in the United Kingdom
iknow UK
England's long history and pervasive culture spread worldwide through the English language and colonialism make England a popular tourist destination, particularly in London (see Tourism in London).
Canterbury Cathedral.[edit] Heritage Cities in England
Bath: A spa, famous for its Regency architecture and crescents, and also for its Roman baths.
Brighton: Brighton is a seaside resort which includes two piers, West Pier and Brighton Pier, and also has the Royal Pavilion.
Bristol: Brunel's Clifton suspension bridge is a famous landmark, and the ship, the SS Great Britain is another of Brunel's famous constructions, which is now in dry dock in Bristol.
Cambridge: A famous university town.
Canterbury: Renowned for its cathedral.
Dover: A major port with access to the continent. Also well known for its white cliffs, and to a lesser extent for its castle, Dover Castle.
Haworth: where the Brontë Sisters lived, is very popular with Japanese tourists, as Wuthering Heights has a cult following in Japan.
Liverpool: The 2008 European Capital of Culture, a major port and World Heritage Site, home to two cathedrals and houses more listed buildings, museums and art galleries than any other city in the UK outside of London. The home of Liverpool F.C, the world famous football club. Is also famous for The Grand National, its musical, maritime and sporting heritage.
Oxford : now a busy commercial city, which also has a famous university.
Robin Hood Statue, Nottingham.Nottingham : The city and Nottingham Castle are famed worldwide for their links with the legend of Robin Hood. Sherwood Forest is nearby.
Portsmouth: Portsmouth is a naval dockyard, and has some famous ships on display, including the Mary Rose, and HMS Victory, all within its Historic Dockyard. Also home to Gunwharf Quays retail centre, with its iconic Spinnaker Tower.
Salisbury: Salisbury cathedral is well known, and has the tallest spire in the country. Nearby is the pre-historic site of Stonehenge, which is administered by English Heritage.
Stratford-upon-Avon: Shakespeare's birthplace is probably the most visited place in Stratford
Wells: best known for Wells Cathedral
York: Famous for York Minster. Also the location of the National Railway Museum and a wealth of preserved medieval streets and buildings, such as the Merchant Adventurers' Hall and the Shambles.
Other places in England are also of historical interest. The city of Manchester is the 2nd most visited city in England after London[1]. Many foreign tourists also visit the neighbouring countries Scotland and Wales – see tourism in Scotland and tourism in Wales.
Domestic tourists, and foreign tourists who have specific interests in art, music, history etc, also visit the following:
Birmingham: A major city, with an orchestra, major exhibition venues (NEC, ICC) and art galleries. Of historical interest for its significant role in the industrial revolution, the childhood home and inspiration of Tolkien, noted for its shopping and boasting the longest stretch of nightclubs in England.
Hadrian's Wall: The Roman wall built by order of the Emperor Hadrian.
Hereford: A cathedral city, famous for the chained library in the cathedral, and the Mappa Mundi
Ironbridge: The cradle of the industrial revolution and the site for the legendary Iron bridge.
Manchester: A major city, famous for the Hallé orchestra and many museums and art galleries, a classic example of buildings from the Victorian era. Also well known for the Manchester Ship Canal. Home of the world famous Manchester United F.C. and Manchester City F.C. the worlds richest football club. The host city of the 2002 Commonwealth Games. Manchester is also known for being the world's first industrialised city. Also noted for its shopping, cuisine and nightlife.
Leeds: A major city, a base to explore the historic county of Yorkshire. It is popular for shopping, nightlife and museums, including the Henry Moore foundation.
[edit] Ecotourism
England also has some unique natural environments, and has a significant Ecotourism industry:
Eden Project in Cornwall.
The Lake District, a national park with hills and lakes, including Windermere, the largest lake in England.
The Peak District, a national park in Derbyshire.
Dartmoor and Exmoor, national parks in Devon.
The New Forest, a rural forest park in Hampshire.
The Jurassic Coast, a World Heritage Site in Dorset and Devon
The National Forest, covering parts of Leicestershire, Derbyshire and Staffordshire.
Center Parcs, a number of rural holiday parks.
Plus various National Nature Reserves, Heritage Coasts and other protected areas.
[edit] See also
Enjoy England
Institute of Tourist Guiding
Tourism in Scotland
Tourism in Wales
Tourism in the United Kingdom
iknow UK
Tourism in Greece
Greece attracts more than 16 million tourists each year, thus contributing 15% to the nation's Gross Domestic Product Economy. Greece has been an attraction for international visitors since antiquity for its rich and long history and more recently for its Mediterranean coastline and beaches.[1] In 2005, 6,088,287 tourists alone visited the city of Athens, the capital city
Visitors
In 2008, the country welcomed over 16.5 million tourists.
The island of Rhodes is one of the most visited places in the Mediterranean Sea.According to a survey conducted in China in 2005, Greece was voted as the Chinese people's number one choice as a tourist destination.[2][3] Furthermore, Greece has been actively trying to secure a large share of Chinese tourists per year, highlighted by the large presence of Greek tourist informatives at the 2006 Beijing International Tourism Expo. Greece had the largest single country participation at the Beijing Tourism Expo with a total exhibition space take-up of more than 1,152 m², more than any other nation.[4] In November 2006, Austria, like China, announced that Greece was the favourite tourist destination for its citizens.[5]. In line with these observations, Greece's former Minister of Tourism Aris Spiliotopoulos announced the opening of a GNTO office in Shanghai until 2010. To promote Chinese flow of tourists to Greece, Air China has now established direct flights from China to Greece.
[edit] Economic impact
At the same time, tourism consumption increased considerably since the turn of the millennium, from US$ 17.7 bn. in 2000 to US$ 29.6 bn. in 2004. The number of jobs directly or indirectly related to the tourism sector were 659,719 and represented 16.5% of the country's total employment for that year.
[edit] Infrastructure
Although Greece has always been a popular tourist destination, it has been criticised many times for lagging behind other Western European nations in terms of tourism infrastructures and amenities. However, this has been greatly improved since the 2004 Athens Olympic Games.
[edit] Hotels
Corfu, one of the Ionian Islands.
Oia in Santorini.
MykonosAccording to the Hellenic Chamber of Hotels and the National Statistical Service of Greece, the number of hotels in Greece was by classification (bedplaces):
Star Rating Number Beds
5 star 176[6] 64,913[6]
4 star 994[6] 176,631[6]
3 star 1,804[6] 163,077[6]
2 star 4,460[6] 231,333[6]
1 star 1,677[6] 57,298[6]
Total 9,111[6] 693,252[6]
[edit] Marinas
Greece has 51 marinas and 14,661 mooring places that provide such services as berths, fuel, water and electricity, telephony, and repairs. Some of the most developed and busiest marinas in Greece are just a few kilometres from the centre of Athens. The marinas of Alimos and Flisvos, on the south coast of Athens, have an aggregated capacity of more than 1,800 vessels.
[edit] Spas and Thermal Springs
Greece has 752 thermosprings. Many have been classified as therapeutic by the National Institute for Geographical and Mineral Research.
[edit] Conference Facilities
Conference tourism, targeted at academic, business, or cultural markets is a cornerstone of the Greek national tourism policy. As a result, the Greek Government, with strong support from local authorities, has been offering lucrative cash grants, leasing and employment subsidies and tax allowances to establish new conference facilities and expand existing ones. In a recent report in Meeting and Incentive Travel, Greece was ranked eighth in the world in overnight stays for conferences. Figures from the Tourism Satellite Accounting Research, conducted by WTTC (World Travel & Tourism Council) project a worldwide increase in revenues in business travel to Greece from US $1.51 bn. in 2001 to US $2.69 bn. in 2011. In 1998, the figure stood at US $1.18 bn.
[edit] Promoting Greek tourism
The government intends to promote winter tourism in Greece, which could potentially increase international arrivals even further.
Tourism in Greece is run by the Greek National Tourism Organisation (GNTO) who used Helena Paparizou, a famous Greek singer who won Eurovision song contest in 2005 as an ambassador. Singer Sakis Rouvas[7], who will represent Greece in the 2009 Eurovision song contest is currently the ambassador for Greek Tourism. The new logo of the Greek National Tourism Organisation consists of nine circles, which symbolize the nine new kinds of tourism that should be promoted to combat the tourism sector's seasonality. The new logo's slogan is "Greece, the true experience," which shows that the marketing campaign is nowadays directed towards experience seekers and not just mass tourism.[8]
The drawback of the new logo is that at a first glance it cannot be associated with Greece. The advertisements displayed in the GNTO's web-site still focus on the triptych of sea, sun and sand. However, the tourism campaign is undergoing a significant change as city-breaks and conference tourism are promoted, along with cultural and wellness tourism. The impact of the new campaign will hopefully result in increased tourist revenues
Visitors
In 2008, the country welcomed over 16.5 million tourists.
The island of Rhodes is one of the most visited places in the Mediterranean Sea.According to a survey conducted in China in 2005, Greece was voted as the Chinese people's number one choice as a tourist destination.[2][3] Furthermore, Greece has been actively trying to secure a large share of Chinese tourists per year, highlighted by the large presence of Greek tourist informatives at the 2006 Beijing International Tourism Expo. Greece had the largest single country participation at the Beijing Tourism Expo with a total exhibition space take-up of more than 1,152 m², more than any other nation.[4] In November 2006, Austria, like China, announced that Greece was the favourite tourist destination for its citizens.[5]. In line with these observations, Greece's former Minister of Tourism Aris Spiliotopoulos announced the opening of a GNTO office in Shanghai until 2010. To promote Chinese flow of tourists to Greece, Air China has now established direct flights from China to Greece.
[edit] Economic impact
At the same time, tourism consumption increased considerably since the turn of the millennium, from US$ 17.7 bn. in 2000 to US$ 29.6 bn. in 2004. The number of jobs directly or indirectly related to the tourism sector were 659,719 and represented 16.5% of the country's total employment for that year.
[edit] Infrastructure
Although Greece has always been a popular tourist destination, it has been criticised many times for lagging behind other Western European nations in terms of tourism infrastructures and amenities. However, this has been greatly improved since the 2004 Athens Olympic Games.
[edit] Hotels
Corfu, one of the Ionian Islands.
Oia in Santorini.
MykonosAccording to the Hellenic Chamber of Hotels and the National Statistical Service of Greece, the number of hotels in Greece was by classification (bedplaces):
Star Rating Number Beds
5 star 176[6] 64,913[6]
4 star 994[6] 176,631[6]
3 star 1,804[6] 163,077[6]
2 star 4,460[6] 231,333[6]
1 star 1,677[6] 57,298[6]
Total 9,111[6] 693,252[6]
[edit] Marinas
Greece has 51 marinas and 14,661 mooring places that provide such services as berths, fuel, water and electricity, telephony, and repairs. Some of the most developed and busiest marinas in Greece are just a few kilometres from the centre of Athens. The marinas of Alimos and Flisvos, on the south coast of Athens, have an aggregated capacity of more than 1,800 vessels.
[edit] Spas and Thermal Springs
Greece has 752 thermosprings. Many have been classified as therapeutic by the National Institute for Geographical and Mineral Research.
[edit] Conference Facilities
Conference tourism, targeted at academic, business, or cultural markets is a cornerstone of the Greek national tourism policy. As a result, the Greek Government, with strong support from local authorities, has been offering lucrative cash grants, leasing and employment subsidies and tax allowances to establish new conference facilities and expand existing ones. In a recent report in Meeting and Incentive Travel, Greece was ranked eighth in the world in overnight stays for conferences. Figures from the Tourism Satellite Accounting Research, conducted by WTTC (World Travel & Tourism Council) project a worldwide increase in revenues in business travel to Greece from US $1.51 bn. in 2001 to US $2.69 bn. in 2011. In 1998, the figure stood at US $1.18 bn.
[edit] Promoting Greek tourism
The government intends to promote winter tourism in Greece, which could potentially increase international arrivals even further.
Tourism in Greece is run by the Greek National Tourism Organisation (GNTO) who used Helena Paparizou, a famous Greek singer who won Eurovision song contest in 2005 as an ambassador. Singer Sakis Rouvas[7], who will represent Greece in the 2009 Eurovision song contest is currently the ambassador for Greek Tourism. The new logo of the Greek National Tourism Organisation consists of nine circles, which symbolize the nine new kinds of tourism that should be promoted to combat the tourism sector's seasonality. The new logo's slogan is "Greece, the true experience," which shows that the marketing campaign is nowadays directed towards experience seekers and not just mass tourism.[8]
The drawback of the new logo is that at a first glance it cannot be associated with Greece. The advertisements displayed in the GNTO's web-site still focus on the triptych of sea, sun and sand. However, the tourism campaign is undergoing a significant change as city-breaks and conference tourism are promoted, along with cultural and wellness tourism. The impact of the new campaign will hopefully result in increased tourist revenues
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